The grammatical meaning of the word life. Grammatical meaning and grammatical category
Or several, i.e. is single-valued or multi-valued.
For example, the word "iceberg" means "a large accumulation of ice or a large block of ice that has broken off from a glacier." The word has no other meaning. Therefore, it is unambiguous. But the word “braid” can have several interpretations. For example, “braid” is “a type of hairstyle” (a girl’s braid), and also “a river bank of a special shape” (I went for a swim on the braid) and, in addition, it is also a “tool of labor” (to sharpen a braid well). Thus, the word "braid" has multiple meanings.
Grammatical meaning words are a certain set of features that allow a word to change its form. So, for a verb, these are signs of tense, person, number, etc., and - tense, present or past, gender, number, etc.
If the main component lexical meaning is contained, as a rule, in its root, then the grammatical meaning of a word is most easily determined by its ending (inflection). For example, at the end of a noun it is easy to determine its gender, case or number. So, in the sentence “The morning turned out to be cool, but sunny,” the noun has the following: nominative case, neuter gender, singular, second. In addition, we can say that the word is common noun, inanimate.
If you try to determine the lexical meaning of the word “morning”, then you will probably clarify that this is the time of day following the night, i.e. start of the day.
If you learn to correctly determine the lexical and grammatical meaning of words, you will be able to compose syntactic constructions (and sentences) that are beautiful in expressiveness and correct in terms of grammar and usage.
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- lexical meaning is
At morphological analysis participles need to define it view, which refers to the constant features of this part of speech. This is very important for the translator, since the one who has changed his view when translated, the participle often changes the meaning of the entire text to the opposite.
You will need
- - table of forms of participles.
Instructions
Try putting the full participle into a short form. With the passive this is most often possible, it always has both forms, but with the active you are unlikely to be able to perform a similar operation. In any case, in modern literary real participles They do not have a short form. Some dialects have it. Short form of passive participles varies by gender and number. However, some passive participles also in modern times they are usually not put in a short form. For example, “breakable”, “readable”, etc. In such cases, a short form exists, but rather refers to the archaic style.
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note
Some participles turn into adjectives over time. This occurs in cases where a particular action or state is a permanent feature of a given object. These can be both active and passive participles - a walking excavator, canned peas, etc. In this case, there is, of course, no need to determine their type.
Usually, to determine the type of participle, one attribute is sufficient. But in doubtful cases, apply them all in turn.
The table of forms of participles can be found in many reference books on the Russian language. But for convenience, compose it yourself. It can consist of only three columns and three rows. On the first line write "Signs", " Active participle", "Passive participle". The following lines will contain suffixes that form one form or another, additional questions, the presence or absence of a short form.
Sources:
- what is the type of participles in 2019
A person tries to gain information about himself, his character and his expected future from all available sources. One way to get to know yourself is to find out what your name means. After all, both character and fate depend on this set of letters, which accompanies a person throughout his life.
Instructions
The vast majority of names have their own. There are a lot of ancient Greek and native Russian names in Russian culture. Each name has a meaning - the word from which it was formed. This word will be the main defining factor of a person. In addition, by name you can trace your character, find out interests and inclinations, and even guess what the names of people with whom it is best to build friendships and inclinations should be. romantic relationship. Books with the meanings of names are sold in any bookstore, in addition, numerous websites will be able to provide the information you are interested in.
According to astrologers, each letter of the alphabet is associated with a constellation or planet and determines some feature of a person. A name is a complex of such letters, therefore, in order to find out the meaning of the name and its influence on a person, it is necessary to decipher each letter individually.
Some experts believe that it is necessary to decipher not the entire name, but only its first letter. And having learned the meaning of the first letters of a person’s last name, first name and patronymic, you will receive extremely clear information about him.
It has been proven that the vibrations that occur during speech, depending on the frequency, have different effects on different parts of the cerebral cortex. A name is something that accompanies a person from infancy and, perhaps, the word that he hears most often. Being under constant influence of certain sounds, a person systematically experiences an impact on areas of the cortex, which shapes his behavioral characteristics and worldview.
You can find out not only the meaning of the name, but also the impression your name makes on others. Every sound evokes associations in people’s minds: big - small, evil - good, active - passive, cold - soft. Numerous websites will help you analyze your name or nickname. You just need to enter it into the search bar, indicating , and you will find out what your name means to others.
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- how to find out the meaning of your name in 2019
Genus noun determines the ending of the dependent word (for example, an adjective or participle), and in some cases, the form of the subject (verb, in the past tense). In words of Slavic origin and borrowed ones one has to be guided by completely different criteria.
You will need
- - Internet access;
- - manuals on the Russian language.
Instructions
Put the noun in the initial form ( , nominative case). Highlight the ending. A noun belongs to the masculine gender if (wind, computer) or “a”, “ya” (Sasha, uncle). The feminine gender has the endings “a”, “ya” (column, guest) and the sign (night, stove). Neuter gender ends with “o”, “e”, but there is a group of indeclinable neuter nouns with the ending “i”: time, flame.
Grammatical meaning
The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word; The differences between these two types of values are:
1. Grammatical meanings are very abstract, so they characterize large classes of words. For example, the meaning of the verb aspect is always present in the semantic structure of the Russian verb. The lexical meaning is more specific than the grammatical one, so it characterizes only a specific word. Even the most abstract lexical meanings (for example, the meanings of words such as infinity, speed) are less abstract than grammatical meanings.
2. The lexical meaning is expressed by the stem of the word, the grammatical meaning is expressed by special formal indicators (therefore, grammatical meanings are often called formal).
So, grammatical meaning is an abstract (abstract) linguistic meaning expressed by formal grammatical means. A word usually has several grammatical meanings. For example, the noun wolf in the sentence I would gnaw out bureaucratism with a wolf (M.) expresses the grammatical meanings of objectivity, animation, masculine gender, singular, instrumental case (the meaning of the comparison: “like a wolf, like a wolf”). The most general and most important grammatical meaning of a word is called categorical (general categorical); These are the meanings of objectivity in a noun, quantity in a numeral, etc.
The categorical meaning of a word is supplemented and specified by private (particularly categorical) grammatical meanings; Thus, a noun is characterized by particular categorical grammatical meanings of animation ~ inanimateness, gender, number and case.
The grammatical meaning always accompanies the lexical meaning, but the lexical meaning does not always accompany the grammatical meaning.
For example: ocean - person (different lexical meaning, but the same grammatical meaning - noun, singular, ip) [Lekant 2007: 239-240].
Ways of expressing grammatical meanings
In Russian morphology there are different ways expressions of grammatical meanings, i.e. ways of forming word forms: synthetic, analytical and mixed.
In the synthetic method, grammatical meanings are usually expressed by affixation, i.e. the presence or absence of affixes (for example, table, stola; goes, go; beautiful, beautiful, beautiful), much less often - alternating sounds and stress (die - die; oils - special oils), as well as suppletive, i.e. formations from different roots (person - people, good - better). Affixation can be combined with a change in stress (water - water), as well as with an alternation of sounds (sleep - sleep).
With the analytical method, grammatical meanings receive their expression outside the main word, i.e. in other words (listen - I will listen).
With a mixed or hybrid method, grammatical meanings are expressed both synthetically and analytically, i.e. both outside and inside the word. For example, the grammatical meaning of the prepositional case is expressed by a preposition and ending (in the house), the grammatical meaning of the first person is expressed by a pronoun and ending (I will come).
Formative affixes can express several grammatical meanings at once, for example: a verb has an ending - ut expresses person, number, and mood [Internet resource 6].
A grammatical category is a set of morphological forms opposed to each other with a common grammatical content. For example, the forms I write - you write - writes indicate a person and are therefore combined into the verbal grammatical category of person; the forms wrote - I am writing - I will write express time and form the category of time, the word forms table - tables, book - books express the idea of the number of objects, they are combined into the category of number, etc. We can also say that grammatical categories are formed private morphological paradigms. Grammatical categories in general have three features.
1) Grammatical categories form a kind of closed systems. The number of members opposed to each other in a grammatical category is predetermined by the structure of the language and in general (in a synchronous section) does not vary. Moreover, each member of the category can be represented by one or several single-functional forms. So, grammatical category the number of nouns is formed by two members, one of which is represented by singular forms (table, book, pen), the other by plural forms (tables, books, feathers). Nouns and adjectives have three genders, a verb has three persons, two types, etc. The quantitative composition of some grammatical categories in the literature is defined differently, which in fact is not related to the volume of the category, but to the assessment of its components. Thus, nouns have 6, 9, 10 and more cases. However, this only reflects different techniques highlighting cases. As for the grammatical structure of the language itself, the case system in it is regulated existing types declination.
2) The expression of grammatical meaning (content) between the forms that form the category is distributed: writing means the first person, writing means the second, writing means the third; table, book, feather indicate the singular, and tables, books, feathers indicate plural, big is masculine, large is female, and large is medium, the shape of large does not indicate gender.
3) The forms that form morphological categories must be united by a common content component (which is reflected in the definition of a grammatical category). This is a prerequisite for identifying a grammatical category. Without this commonality, grammatical categories are not formed. For example, the opposition of transitive and intransitive verbs does not form a morphological category precisely because it is not based on general content. For the same reason, other lexico-grammatical categories identified in independent parts of speech are not morphological categories [Kamynina 1999: 10-14].
Significant and functional parts of speech
Parts of speech are the main grammatical classes of words, which are established taking into account the morphological properties of words. These word classes are important not only for morphology, but also for lexicology and syntax.
Words belonging to the same part of speech have common grammatical features:
1) the same generalized grammatical meaning, called subverbal (for example, for all nouns the meaning of objectivity);
2) the same set of morphological categories (nouns are characterized by the categories of animate/inanimate, gender, number and case). In addition, words of the same part of speech have word-formation similarity and perform the same syntactic functions as part of a sentence.
In modern Russian, independent and auxiliary parts of speech, as well as interjections, are distinguished.
Independent parts of speech serve to designate objects, signs, processes and other phenomena of reality. Such words are usually independent parts of a sentence and carry verbal stress. The following independent parts of speech are distinguished: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb.
Within independent parts of speech, fully significant and incompletely significant words are contrasted. Full-nominal words (nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, most adverbs) serve to name certain objects, phenomena, signs, and incompletely significant words (these are pronouns and pronominal adverbs) only point to objects, phenomena, signs without naming them.
Another distinction within the framework of independent parts of speech is important: names (nouns, adjectives, numerals, as well as pronouns) as inflected parts of speech (changed by cases) are opposed to the verb as a part of speech, which is characterized by conjugation (change by moods, tenses, persons) .
Functional parts of speech (particles, conjunctions, prepositions) do not name phenomena of reality, but denote the relationships that exist between these phenomena. They are not independent parts of a sentence and usually do not have verbal stress.
Interjections (ah!, hurray!, etc.) are neither independent nor auxiliary parts of speech; they constitute a special grammatical category of words. Interjections express (but do not name) the speaker’s feelings [Lekant 2007: 243-245].
Since parts of speech are a grammatical concept, it is obvious that the principles and grounds for identifying parts of speech must be primarily grammatical. Firstly, such grounds are the syntactic properties of the word. Some words are included in the grammatical structure of a sentence, others are not. Some of those included in the grammatical composition of a sentence are independent members of the sentence, others are not, since they can only perform the function of a service element that establishes relationships between members of the sentence, parts of the sentence, etc. Secondly, the morphological features of words are essential: their changeability or immutability, the nature of the grammatical meanings that a particular word can express, the system of its forms.
Based on what has been said, all words of the Russian language are divided into those included in the grammatical composition of the sentence and those not included in this composition. The former represent the vast majority of words. Among them, significant and auxiliary words stand out.
Significant words are independent parts of a sentence. These include: nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, state category.
Significant words are usually called parts of speech. Among the significant words, on the morphological basis of changeability-immutability, names and verbs stand out, on the one hand, and adverbs and the category of state, on the other.
The last two categories - adverbs and the category of state - differ in their syntactic function (adverbs serve mainly as adverbs, the category of state - as the predicate of an impersonal sentence: “I’m sad because you’re having fun” (L.), and also in the fact that, unlike adverbs, words state categories are capable of controlling (“I’m sad”, “you’re having fun”; “How fun it is to wear iron sharp feet, Slide along the mirror of standing, smooth rivers!" - P.).
Function words (they are also called particles of speech) are united by the fact that they (being part of the grammatical composition of a sentence) serve only to express various kinds of grammatical relations or participate in the formation of forms of other words, i.e. are not members of the proposal. From a morphological point of view, they are also united by immutability.
These include prepositions, conjunctions and particles. In this case, prepositions serve to express the relationship of the noun to other words, conjunctions establish a connection between the members of the sentence and the parts complex sentence. Particles participate in the formation of some verb forms, in the construction of a certain type of sentence (for example, interrogative). Words that are not part of the grammatical structure of a sentence include modals, interjections and onomatopoeia.
Modal words (perhaps, of course, maybe, probably, apparently, perhaps, of course, etc.) express the speaker’s attitude to the content of the utterance. Interjections serve to express feelings and volitional impulses (ah, oh-oh-oh, scat, well, etc.). Onomatopoeias are words that convey sounds and noises. These last three categories of words, like function words, are unchangeable [Rakhmanova 1997: 20].
GRAMMATICAL MEANING, a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic structures and finding its regular (standard) expression in the language (see Grammatical form). In the field of morphology, these are general meanings of words as parts of speech (for example, the meaning of objectivity in nouns, procedural in verbs), as well as particular meanings of word forms and words in general, contrasted with each other within the framework of morphological categories (see Grammatical category) (for example, the meanings of that or other time, person, number, gender). In the field of syntax, this is the meaning of predicativity (the attribution of what is being communicated to a particular temporal and objective-modal plane, inherent in a sentence), as well as various relationships of the components of phrases and sentences as abstract grammatical patterns (in abstraction from their lexical content): the meaning of the semantic subject, this or that another adverbial qualifier (local, temporal, causal, target, etc.); components of the thematic-rhematic structure of a sentence formalized in certain linguistic means (see Actual division of a sentence); expressed allied communications relationships between parts of a complex sentence. Grammatical meanings can also include word-formative meanings as generalized meanings expressed by intra-word means in some motivated words of a particular part of speech. These are mutational meanings (for example, the bearer of a characteristic, the producer of an action), transpositional (for example, an objectified action or characteristic), modification (for example, gradational - indicating one or another degree of manifestation of the characteristic). Grammatical meanings are opposed to lexical meanings, which are devoid of regular (standard) expression and not necessarily of an abstract nature, but are closely related to them, sometimes limited in their manifestation to certain lexical groups of words.
In the system of grammatical meanings, knowledge about objects and phenomena of reality, their connections and relationships is objectified (through the level of concepts): thus, the concept of action (in the broad sense - as a procedural feature) is abstractly revealed in the general meaning of the verb and in the system of more specific categorical meanings inherent verb (tense, aspect, voice, etc.); the concept of quantity - in the grammatical meaning of number (category of number, numeral as a special part of speech, etc.); different relationships of objects to other objects, actions, properties - in the system of grammatical meanings expressed by case forms and prepositions.
Lit.: Studies on the general theory of grammar. M., 1968; Invariant syntactic meanings and sentence structure. M., 1969; Principles and methods of semantic research. M., 1976; Bondarko A.V. Grammatical meaning and meaning. L., 1978; aka. Theory of meaning in the system of functional grammar. M., 2002; Kubryakova E. S. Types of linguistic meanings. Semantics of a derived word. M., 1981; Maslov Yu. S. Introduction to linguistics. 2nd ed. M., 1987; Wierzbicka A. The semantics of grammar. Amst., 1988; Bulygina T.V., Shmelev A.D. Linguistic conceptualization of the world: (On the material of Russian grammar). M., 1997; Melchuk I. A. Course of general morphology. M., 1998. T. 2. Part 2.
Words are the building materials for any language. Sentences and phrases are built from them, with their help we convey thoughts and communicate. The ability of this unit to name or designate objects, actions, etc. called a function. The suitability of a word for communication and transmission of thoughts is called its
Thus, the word is the basic, main structural unit of language.
Every word in Russian has a lexical and grammatical meaning.
Lexical is the relationship between the sound (phonetic) design of a word, its sound, and phenomena of reality, images, objects, actions, etc. It can be said more simply: this is the meaning. From a lexical point of view, the words “barrel”, “bump”, “point” are different units because they denote different objects.
The grammatical meaning of a word is the meaning of its forms: gender or number, case or conjugation. If the words “barrel” and “dot” are considered grammatically, then they will be absolutely the same: creatures. female, standing in the nominative case and singular. number.
If you compare the lexical and grammatical meaning of a word, you can see that they are not the same, but are interconnected. The lexical meaning of each of them is universal, but the main one is fixed at the root. (For example: “son”, “sonny”, “sonny”, “sonny”).
The grammatical meaning of a word is conveyed using word-forming morphemes: endings and formative suffixes. So, “forest”, “forester”, “forester” will be quite close: their meaning is determined by the root “forest”. From a grammatical point of view, they are completely different: two nouns and an adjective.
On the contrary, the words “came”, “arrived”, “ran up”, “ran up”, “flew off”, “shot down” will be similar in grammatical orientation. These are verbs in the past tense form, which are formed using the suffix “l”.
The following conclusion follows from the examples: the grammatical meaning of a word is its belonging to a part of speech, general meaning a whole series of similar units, not tied to their specific material (semantic) content. “Mom”, “Dad”, “Motherland” - creatures. 1 declension, in the form I.p., singular. numbers. "Owl", "mice", "youth" are feminine nouns. gender, 3 declensions, standing in R.p. The grammatical meaning of the words “red”, “huge”, “wooden” indicates that these are adjectives in the form husband. kind, singular numbers, I.p. It is clear that the lexical meaning of these words is different.
The grammatical meaning of a word is expressed in a certain form, corresponding to the position of words in a sentence (or phrase), and is expressed using grammatical means. Most often these are affixes, but often the grammatical form is formed using function words, stress, word order or intonation.
Its appearance (name) directly depends on how the form is formed.
Simple (they are also called synthetic) grammatical forms are formed within a unit (using endings or formative suffixes). The case forms (not) of mother, daughter, son, Motherland are formed using endings. the verbs “wrote”, “jumped” - using the suffix and the verb “jumped” - using the suffix “l” and the ending “a”.
Some forms are formed outside the lexeme, and not inside it. In this case, there is a need for function words. For example, the verbs “I will sing” and “let us sing” are formed using function words (verbs). The words “will” and “let’s” in this case have no lexical meaning. They are needed to create, in the first case, the future tense, and in the second, the incentive mood. Such forms are called complex or analytical.
Grammatical meanings are defined into systems or clusters of gender, number, etc.
Lexical meaning, that is inner meaning, not all words possess, but only those that can express concepts. Such words are called full-meaning or independent. From a grammatical point of view, these include: nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, pronouns.
Functional words, modal words and interjections do not designate concepts, and they are not related to objects of reality. These words have special meanings: they express attitudes and feelings towards something: unconditionally, fortunately, etc. The basis of the lexical meaning, which only full-valued words have, is a concept, but there is no equality between the lexical meaning and the concept . A concept is a copy of the object of reality in our thinking. There is always one concept in a word, but there can be several meanings. For example, the concept green can have the following meanings:
Green pencil (color characteristic);
Green fruit (degree of ripening, compare: ripe fruit);
Green face (characteristic of ill health, degree of fatigue);
Green age (degree of social maturity).
Only if the word is a term does the concept coincide with the meaning. For example: suffix, root, phoneme, etc. The main difference between concept and meaning is that concept is a copy, an exact designation, and meaning always includes emotional and expressive coloring (modality). For example: the word sun - there is a diminutive connotation here; The word grandma has a disparaging connotation. There cannot be these shades in the concept (compare: the use of the words morpheme, phoneme is illiterate).
Any word also has a grammatical meaning. Grammatical meanings complement lexical meanings and reflect the belonging of a word to a certain grammatical category. Grammatical categories are the meanings of gender, number, case, declension, voice, aspect, etc. Grammatical meanings help classify Russian vocabulary. For example, the words airplane, school, walking have nothing in common in terms of lexical meaning, that is, content, but their grammatical meanings are the same and allow them to be classified as nouns in the singular form, nominative case.
Not a single word in the Russian language remains without a grammatical meaning. Lexical meanings in all languages are formed in exactly the same way (subject -> concept -> sound shell -> name). Grammatical meanings are formed differently in different languages. That's why there are 6 cases in Russian, in German- 4 cases, and in French and English languages they don't exist at all. The carrier of lexical meaning is the stem of the word. For example: tall, height. The grammatical meaning is expressed using endings, suffixes, prefixes, stress, and auxiliary words. For example, in the word side the ending -a shows that it is a feminine noun, singular, nominative case, 1st declension. When the lexical meaning changes, the grammatical meaning of the word also changes. This is especially noticeable when transitioning from one part of speech to another (on horseback, around, dining room - these words now have different grammatical meanings than before).
Thus, a word that represents the unity of form and content, that is, the unity of the sound shell and meaning, thereby represents the unity of lexical and grammatical meanings. Each word, naming this or that object or phenomenon, always communicates. For example: Pluck this flower for me. The word flower performs two functions in this sentence: it denotes a specific object that I need at this moment, and it denotes an object in general, that is, an object with some specific characteristics, thanks to which a person recognizes it among other objects. Thus, each word performs two functions in the language.