The grammatical meaning of the word walk. Grammatical meaning and grammatical category

Grammatical meaning - part of the meaning (content) of a word or sentence that receives a mandatory formal expression as part of the word or sentence.

There are two types of meanings of linguistic units in language: lexical and grammatical. The lexical meaning of a word is the subject of vocabulary, and the grammatical meaning is the subject of grammar. Lexical meaning is the specific, objective meaning of a word. Simplifying somewhat, we can say that this is a reflection of a fragment of the surrounding world in a word (see Lexical meaning of the word).

The difference between lexical meaning and grammatical meaning lies in the greater degree of abstraction of the latter, in its obligatory and regular, fairly standard formal expression in the language. Grammatical meaning is more abstract: it does not name objects, signs, actions, etc., but classifies words, combines them into groups according to certain characteristics, and connects words in syntactic constructions. Grammatical abstraction is an abstraction from a specific meaning, the isolation of grammatical features and relationships that characterize an entire class of words. Each part of speech is characterized by a specific set of grammatical meanings. For example, a noun has a meaning of gender, number and case, a verb has a meaning of tense, mood, etc.

Grammatical meanings are obligatory in a language: this means that they are expressed in a word or sentence without fail, regardless of the desire of the speaker. For example, when reporting an event, a Russian speaker must note whether the event is happening now, whether it happened earlier, or whether it can only happen in the future, i.e., indicate the tense of the verb. A noun must be masculine, feminine or neuter, has a number and case form, etc.

Grammatical meaning is always formally expressed in the composition of a word or sentence. The ways of expressing grammatical meaning can be different.

1. In Russian, grammatical meanings are most often expressed using endings (inflections): cat - cats (number), cat - cat (case), I go - you go (person), etc.

2. Sometimes grammatical meaning can be expressed by alternating sounds: call - name (category of aspect), run - run (category of mood).

3. Grammatical meanings can also be expressed using stress: cut - cut (meaning type).

4. Grammatical meanings can be expressed by combining forms from different bases into one paradigm: person - people (category of number), I - me (category of case).

5. The grammatical meaning can be expressed by repeating the word: kind-kind (superlative adjective).

6. The grammatical meaning can be expressed by functional words: I will read (the meaning of the future tense), I would read (the meaning of the subjunctive mood).

7. Grammatical meaning can be expressed using the order of words in a sentence: a mother loves her daughter, a chair scratches the table (subject-object relationships are formalized by subject and object).

8. Grammatical meaning can be expressed using intonation: He came. He came?

Grammatical meaning has standard and regular means of expression, that is, in most cases, homogeneous grammatical meanings are expressed by the same (standard) morphemes. So, for example, the instrumental case of nouns of the 1st declension is represented by the ending -th(s): girl, bird, dad, young man, etc., and the instrumental case of nouns of the 2nd declension is represented by the ending -th(s): boy, hammer, field, etc. Grammatical meaning is expressed, as a rule, regularly, that is, it forms paradigms - patterns of inflection into which you can substitute any word of the same grammatical characteristic and get the correct form (see Paradigm). Therefore, the grammatical system is easily structured and can be presented in the form of tables (for example, tables of noun declension or verb conjugation).

Or several, i.e. is single-valued or multi-valued.

For example, the word "iceberg" means "a large accumulation of ice or a large block of ice that has broken off from a glacier." The word has no other meaning. Therefore, it is unambiguous. But the word “braid” can have several interpretations. For example, “braid” is “a type of hairstyle” (a girl’s braid), and also “a river bank of a special shape” (I went for a swim on the braid) and, in addition, it is also a “tool of labor” (to sharpen a braid well). Thus, the word "braid" has multiple meanings.

The grammatical meaning of a word is a certain set of features that allow the word to change its form. So, for a verb, these are signs of tense, person, number, etc., and - tense, present or past, gender, number, etc.

If the main component of the lexical meaning is, as a rule, contained in its root, then the grammatical meaning of a word is most easily determined by its ending (inflection). For example, at the end of a noun it is easy to determine its gender, case or number. So, in the sentence “The morning was cool but sunny” noun has the following: nominative case, neuter gender, singular, second. In addition, we can say that the word is common noun, inanimate.

If you try to determine lexical meaning the word “morning”, then, for sure, clarify that this is the time of day following the night, i.e. start of the day.

If you learn to correctly determine the lexical and grammatical meaning of words, you will be able to compose syntactic constructions (and sentences) that are beautiful in expressiveness and correct in terms of grammar and usage.

Sources:

lexical meaning is

At morphological analysis participles need to define it view, which refers to the constant features of a given part of speech. This is very important for the translator, since the one who has changed his view when translated, the participle often changes the meaning of the entire text to the opposite.

You will need

- table of forms of participles.

Instructions

Try putting the full participle into a short form. With the passive this is most often possible, it always has both forms, but with the active you are unlikely to be able to perform a similar operation. In any case, in modern literary real participles They do not have a short form. Some dialects have it. Short form of passive participles varies by gender and number. However, some passive participles also in modern times they are usually not put in a short form. For example, “breakable”, “readable”, etc. In such cases, a short form exists, but rather refers to the archaic style.

Video on the topic

note

Some participles turn into adjectives over time. This occurs in cases where a particular action or state is a permanent feature of a given object. These can be both active and passive participles - a walking excavator, canned peas, etc. In this case, there is, of course, no need to determine their type.

Helpful advice

Usually, to determine the type of participle, one attribute is sufficient. But in doubtful cases, apply them all in turn.

The table of forms of participles can be found in many reference books on the Russian language. But for convenience, compose it yourself. It can consist of only three columns and three rows. In the first line write “Signs”, “Active participle”, “ Passive participle". The following lines will contain suffixes that form one form or another, additional questions, the presence or absence of a short form.

Sources:

what is the type of participles in 2019

A person tries to gain information about himself, his character and his expected future from all available sources. One way to get to know yourself is to find out what your name means. After all, both character and fate depend on this set of letters, which accompanies a person throughout his life.

Instructions

The vast majority of names have their own. There are a lot of ancient Greek and native Russian names in Russian culture. Each name has a meaning - the word from which it was formed. This word will be the main defining factor of a person. In addition, by name you can trace your character, find out interests and inclinations, and even guess what the names of people with whom it is best to build friendships and inclinations should be. romantic relationship. Books with the meanings of names are sold in any bookstore, in addition, numerous websites will be able to provide the information you are interested in.

According to astrologers, each letter of the alphabet is associated with a constellation or planet and determines some feature of a person. A name is a complex of such letters, therefore, in order to find out the meaning of the name and its influence on a person, it is necessary to decipher each letter individually.

Some experts believe that it is necessary to decipher not the entire name, but only its first letter. And having learned the meaning of the first letters of a person’s last name, first name and patronymic, you will receive extremely clear information about him.

It has been proven that the vibrations that occur during speech, depending on the frequency, have different effects on different parts of the cerebral cortex. A name is something that accompanies a person from infancy and, perhaps, the word that he hears most often. Being under constant influence of certain sounds, a person systematically experiences an impact on areas of the cortex, which shapes his behavioral characteristics and worldview.

You can find out not only the meaning of the name, but also the impression your name makes on others. Every sound evokes associations in people’s minds: big - small, evil - good, active - passive, cold - soft. Numerous sites will help you analyze your name or nickname. You just need to enter it into the search bar, indicating , and you will find out what your name means to others.

Video on the topic

Sources:

how to find out the meaning of your name in 2019

Genus noun determines the ending of the dependent word (for example, an adjective or participle), and in some cases, the form of the subject (verb, in the past tense). In words of Slavic origin and borrowed ones one has to be guided by completely different criteria.

You will need

- Internet access;
- manuals on the Russian language.

Instructions

Put the noun in the initial form ( , nominative case). Highlight the ending. A noun belongs to the masculine gender if (wind, computer) or “a”, “ya” (Sasha, uncle). The feminine gender has the endings “a”, “ya” (column, guest) and the sign (night, stove). Neuter gender ends with “o”, “e”, but there is a group of indeclinable neuter nouns with the ending “i”: time, flame.

Grammatical meaning– this is a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic structures and finding its regular (standard) expression in grammatical forms. In the field of morphology it is general values words as parts of speech (for example, the meaning of objectivity in nouns, procedurality in verbs), as well as the particular meanings of word forms and words in general. The grammatical meaning of a word is not determined by its lexical meaning.

Unlike the lexical meaning characteristic of a particular word, the grammatical meaning is not concentrated in one word, but, on the contrary, is characteristic of many words of the language. In addition, the same word can have multiple grammatical meanings, which are found when a word changes its grammatical form while maintaining its lexical meaning. For example, the word stol has a number of forms (stola, stola, tables, etc.) that express the grammatical meanings of number and case.

If lexical meaning is associated with a generalization of the properties of objects and phenomena of objective reality, their name and expression of concepts about them, then grammatical meaning arises as a generalization of the properties of words, as an abstraction from the lexical meanings of words.

For example, the words cow and bull exist to distinguish between animals based on their biological sex. Gender forms group nouns according to their grammatical properties. The shapes table, wall, window group words (and not objects, phenomena and concepts about them).

1) grammatical meanings are not universal, are less numerous, and form a closed, more clearly structured class.

2) grammatical meanings, unlike lexical ones, are expressed in a mandatory, “forced” order. For example, a Russian speaker cannot “evade” the expression of the category of number of a verb, an English speaker cannot “evade” the category of definiteness of a noun, etc.

3) lexical and grammatical meanings differ in terms of the methods and means of their formal expression.

4) grammatical meanings may not have complete correspondence in the extralinguistic sphere (thus, the categories of number and time usually correspond to reality in one way or another, while feminine noun stool And masculine noun chair motivated only by their endings).

The grammatical meanings of words are expressed using various grammatical means. The grammatical meaning expressed using the grammatical means of the language is called a grammatical category.

All words of the Russian language are divided into certain lexical and grammatical categories, called parts of speech. Parts of speech– the main lexical and grammatical categories into which words of a language are distributed based on the following characteristics: a) semantic (generalized meaning of an object, action or state, quality, etc.), b) morphological (morphological categories of a word) and c) s and n t a c h e c o g o (syntactic functions of a word)

. The classification of Academician Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov is one of the most substantiated and convincing. It divides all words into four grammatical-semantic (structural-semantic) categories of words:

1. Name words, or parts of speech;

2. Connectives, function words, or particles of speech;

3. Modal words;

4. Interjections.

1. Name words (parts of speech) denote objects, processes, qualities, characteristics, numerical connections and relationships, are members of a sentence and can be used separately from other words as sentence words. To the parts of speech of V.V. Vinogradov classifies nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, words into the category of state; they are also accompanied by pronouns.

2. Function words are deprived of a nominative (nominal) function. These include connective and function words (prepositions, conjunctions, actual particles, connectives).

3. Modal words and particles also do not perform a denomination function, but are more “lexical” than function words. They express the speaker's attitude towards the content of the utterance.

4. Interjections express feelings, moods and volitional impulses, but do not name and. Interjections differ from other types of words by their lack of cognitive value, intonation features, syntactic disorganization and direct connection with facial expressions and expressive tests.

In modern Russian there are 10 parts of speech: 1) noun,

2) adjective, 3) numeral, 4) pronoun, 5) state category, 6) adverb, 7) preposition, 8) conjunction, 9) particles, 10) verb (sometimes participles and gerunds are also distinguished as independent parts of speech )[i]. The first six parts of speech are significant performing a nominative function and acting as members of a sentence. A special place among them is occupied by pronouns, including words that lack a denominative function. Prepositions, conjunctions, particles - official parts of speech that do not have a denomination function and do not act as independent members of a sentence. In addition to the named classes of words, in modern Russian there are special groups words: 1) modal words expressing the attitude of the statement to reality from the point of view of the speaker ( probably, obviously, of course); 2) interjections that serve to express feelings and expression of will ( oh, oh, chick); 3) onomatopoeic words ( quack-quack, meow-meow

Independent (nominative) parts of speech include words naming objects, their actions and signs. You can ask questions about independent words, and in a sentence significant words are members of the sentence.

The independent parts of speech in Russian include the following:

Part of speech	Questions	Examples
Noun	Who? What?	Boy, uncle, table, wall, window.
Verb	what to do? what to do?	To saw, to saw, to know, to find out.
Adjective	Which? whose?	Nice, blue, mom's, door.
Numeral	How many? which?	Five, five, five.
Adverb	How? When? Where? and etc.	Fun, yesterday, close.
Pronoun	Who? Which? How many? How? and etc.	I, he, so, my, so much, so, there.
Participle	Which? (what is he doing? what has he done? etc.)	Dreaming, dreaming.
Participle	How? (doing what? doing what?)	Dreaming, deciding.

Notes.

1) As already noted, in linguistics there is no single point of view on the position of participles and gerunds in the system of parts of speech. Some researchers classify them as independent parts of speech, others consider them special forms of the verb. Participle and gerund really occupy an intermediate position between independent parts of speech and forms of the verb.

Functional parts of speech- these are words that do not name objects, actions, or signs, but express only the relationships between them.

Functional words cannot be questioned.
Function words are not parts of the sentence.
Function words serve independent words, helping them connect with each other as part of phrases and sentences.
The auxiliary parts of speech in Russian include the following:

pretext (in, on, about, from, because of);
union (and, but, however, because, so that, if);
particle (would, whether, not, even, exactly, only).

6. Interjections occupy a special position among parts of speech.

Interjections do not name objects, actions, or signs (as independent parts of speech), do not express relationships between independent words and do not serve to connect words (as auxiliary parts of speech).
Interjections convey our feelings. To express amazement, delight, fear, etc., we use interjections such as ah, oh, uh; to express the feeling of cold - br-r, to express fear or pain – Ouch etc.

Independent parts of speech have a nominative function (they name objects, their characteristics, actions, states, quantity, signs of other characteristics or indicate them), have a system of forms and are members of the sentence in a sentence.

Functional parts of speech do not have a nominative function, are unchangeable and cannot be members of a sentence. They serve to connect words and sentences and to express the speaker's attitude towards the message.

Ticket number 8

Noun

The significant part of speech, which includes words with an objective meaning that have a gender category, change according to cases and numbers and act as any member in a sentence.

Word as a unit of language

Lexicology is a branch of the science of language that studies the vocabulary of a language, or vocabulary. In lexicology, the word is studied as an individual unit, as well as the place of the word in the lexical system of the modern Russian literary language.

Word- the main nominative and cognitive (cognitive) unit of language, which serves to name objects, processes, properties and communicate about them. It belongs to the lexical-semantic level of language and consists of units lower levels: phonemes and morphemes.

One of the most important functions of a word is the nominative function. It is known that every newly appearing object, every new discovery receives a name (title).

The naming function in the language is carried out significant parts of speech: noun, adjective, numeral, verb, adverb.

By its linguistic nature, a word is a complex, multidimensional, diverse unit of language. The following main features of the word are noted:

1) Phonetic design, i.e. a word is a sound complex constructed according to the laws of the phonetic structure of a given language.

2) The presence of a word with a meaning that is assigned to it in the minds of all speakers given language.

3) Separateness and impenetrability of the word, i.e. the impossibility of additional insertions inside a word without changing its meaning.

4) Reproducibility, i.e. words are not created in the process of communication, but are extracted from the linguistic memory of native speakers.

5) Isolability, i.e. a word can be isolated from speech or context.

6) Non-two-accent, i.e. the word has one main emphasis - students.

7) Referral to a specific part of speech.

Lexical and grammatical meaning of the word

A word is a two-way linguistic unit ( sign), having a form, i.e. sound or graphic shell and meaning - a specific linguistic reflection of reality. For example, a sequence of letters tree becomes a sign (word) because it has meaning.

However, not every set of sounds (letters) will be a word. N.: And I came up with a word, a simple word - plim.. Here he jumps and jumps. Plim, plim, plim. And it doesn't mean anything. Plim, plim, plim(I. Tokmakova). This set of sounds, although designed according to the laws of language. has no meaning, therefore it does not become a word (sign).

The ability of certain sound complexes that form words to express certain meanings is studied by l sexual semantics- the science of the meaning of words

Lexical meaning a word is its “material” meaning, it is the correlation of the sound shell of a word with a certain object or phenomenon of reality with a single national understanding of this correlation.

Lexical meaning of the word individually: it is inherent in a given word and thereby distinguishes this word from others, each of which has its own, also individual meaning.

Along with the lexical meaning, the word has a grammatical meaning. The grammatical meaning of the word- this is a characteristic of it as an element of a certain grammatical class ( table – noun m.r..). Grammatical meaning characterizes entire categories and classes of words; it categorically.

Let's compare the words table, house, knife. Each of them has its own lexical meaning. At the same time, they are characterized by common, one and the same grammatical meanings: they all belong to the same part of speech - noun, to the same grammatical gender - husband. and have the same number - the only one.

Important sign grammatical meaning, distinguishing it from the lexical meaning - obligatory expression: we cannot use a word without expressing its grammatical meaning. So, saying the word book, we not only name a specific object, but also express such characteristics of this noun as gender (g.), number (sing.), case (i.).

Types of lexical meanings

A comparison of various words and their meanings allows us to identify several types of lexical meanings of words in the Russian language.

1. By nomination method, i.e. Based on the nature of the connection between the meaning of a word and the subject of objective reality, two types of lexical meanings are distinguished: direct And indirect(portable).

Direct is the meaning of a word that directly indicates an object, sign, process, etc. and acts as its main nomination in modern period language development. Portable a meaning is called, the appearance of which is due to functional-associative connections that unite one object, feature, process with another: bear: 1. ‘animal’; 2. ‘clumsy person’.

II. According to the degree of semantic motivation There are two types of word meanings: unmotivated (non-derivative, primary) and motivated (derivative, secondary).

Unmotivated is called a meaning that is genetically non-derivative for the modern Russian language N.: road, donkey1– ‘animal of burden’.

Motivated is a meaning that is derivative in semantic or word-formation terms. N.: donkey2– ‘dumb stubborn’ (a person is compared to a donkey based on such characteristics as stupidity and stubbornness), roadside– ‘growing by the road’.

III. If possible, lexical compatibility free and non-free values are distinguished.

Free is the meaning of a word that has a relatively wide syntagmatics (combinability). The connections between words in this case are determined by the real connections of the phenomena of reality. N.: noun. bread has a wide range of compatibility: fresh, rye, stale, ... But freedom of compatibility is relative, it is limited by the semantic relations of words: combinations like wooden, smart, stupid bread.

Unfree is the meaning of words whose compatibility is limited by semantic and extralinguistic factors. Among the lexically constrained, three groups of word meanings are distinguished: phraseologically related, syntactically limited and structurally determined.

Phraseologically related is the meaning of a word that is realized in combination with a certain and at the same time limited range of words. N.: adj. dun can only be combined with words horse, stallion, horse (it is forbidden dun cow or bus).

Phraseologically related meanings of words real(trifle, trifle, nonsense, true); look down (glance, eyes, look), gape (mouth, mouth).

Syntactically limited this is called figurative meaning a word that is realized by this word only in a certain syntactic position: the position of the predicate, address or definition different types. N.: hat(about a sluggish, uninitiative person, a bungler): He's a real hat; Hat! Wherever you go, He, the hat, can’t handle anything.

Similar syntactic restrictions apply to the figurative use (in relation to a person) of words donkey, bear, elephant, snake, oak.

Structurally determined is the meaning of a word that is expressed only in a certain construction. So, verb cry expresses its meaning only in combination with a prepositional-case combination on + noun in V.p.: cry at fate, respond for what(on request).

IV. By the nature of the functions performed Two types of lexical meanings can be distinguished: proper nominative and expressive-synonymous.

Nominative- such meanings of words that are used primarily to name objects, phenomena, qualities. The semantic structure of words with a similar meaning is not reflected additional signs(for example, evaluative). The meaning of the words will be nominative eyes, move, horse, payback and a lot others. Each of them is directly related to the concept and names it.

Expressive-synonymous is a meaning in which the main one is connotative, or emotional-evaluative sign. Words with this meaning arose as additional expressive-emotional names for nominations already existing in the language with a denotative meaning. For example, each of the above words can be replaced by a word that has an expressive-synonymous meaning: eyes - zenki, move - trudge, horse - nag, retribution - retribution.

Words with such meanings exist independently in the language and are reflected in dictionaries, but are perceived in the minds of native speakers by association with their nominative synonyms.

Polysemy of the word

Words in a language can have not one, but two or more meanings. The ability of a word to be used in more than one meaning is called polysemy, or polysemy. The “lower limit” of polysemy is uniqueness (monosemy), which is characterized by the presence of only one meaning for a word: birch, tram.

At the moment of its occurrence, the word is always unambiguous. The new meaning is the result of the figurative use of a word, when the name of one phenomenon is used as the name of another. The following types of figurative meanings are distinguished: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche.

Metaphor- this is the transfer of a name by similarity, as well as the figurative meaning itself, which is based on similarity.

The similarities between objects can be very diverse. Items may be similar:

A) shape: arched eyebrows, a wheel of cheese, a pot-bellied teapot;

b ) location: comet tail, trains, building wing;

V) size: a mountain of things, a stream of tears, a cloud of mosquitoes;

G) color: copper hair, coral lips, chocolate tan;

d) degree of density, permeability: iron muscles, wall of rain;

e) degree of mobility, re shares: spinning top, dragonfly (about an active child)

and) sound: rain drumming, saw squealing;

h) degree of value: golden words, the highlight of the program.

There are metaphors general language, when one or another metaphorical meaning of a word is used widely and is known to all speakers of a given language (a nail head, a river branch) and individual, created by a writer or poet, characterizing his stylistic style:

For example, the metaphors of S.A. Yesenina: fire of red rowan, chintz of the sky, ripe star.

Metonymy- this is the transfer of the name of one object to another based on the contiguity of these objects.

Metonymy is the result of semantic shifts in the language system. It can arise as a result of transfers based on various connections:

a) material - product (mining gold - gold in the ears)

b) vessel - contents of the vessel (drank a glass)

c) room - people (the audience listened carefully)

d) action - place of action (crossing the street - pedestrian crossing)

e) plant - fruit (pear, cherry)

e) animal - fur (fox)

Synecdoche- using the name of some part of an object instead of the whole and vice versa (Synecdoche is a type of metonymic shift). For example: face, mouth, head, hand indicate the corresponding parts human body. But each of them can be used to name a person: A person of Caucasian nationality. There are 5 mouths in a family. Lena is a bright-headed person.

Synecdoche can be expressed in the use of the singular number of a noun to denote a collection, a set: The student (=students) went the wrong way today.

Some characteristic features person - beard, glasses, clothes are often used to designate a person, to address him (in colloquial speech): I stand here for blue cloak(=behind the man in the blue cloak).

Homonyms

Homonyms- these are words that have the same sound and spelling, but different meanings: marriage(marriage) - marriage(defect), p ys(animal) - lynx(horse running).

The largest and most diverse group consists of lexical (absolute) homonyms: rook(boat) - rook(chess figure). In lexicology, there are two types of lexical homonyms - full And incomplete(partial).

TO complete Lexical homonyms include words of the same part of speech, which have the same entire system of forms: key(door) - key(spring)

TO incomplete Lexical homonyms include words of the same part of speech, in which not the entire system of forms coincides: factory (company) - factory(mechanism) - has no plural forms.

From lexical homonyms, full and partial, other types of homonymy should be distinguished: phonetic, graphic, morphological.

1. Phonetic (sound) homonymy- word matching in sound: onion - meadow, mushroom - flu. Phonetic homonyms are called homophones.

2. Graphic homonymy- words that are identical only in spelling, but sound differently: roast(dish) and roast(summer); flour - flour. T what words are called homographs.

3. Morphological homonymy- coincidence of words belonging to both different parts speech, in one or more forms: ate(the form of the verb is) and ate(plural noun spruce); three(num.) and three(implementative verb. rub). Such words are called homoforms.

Homonymy must be distinguished from polysemy (multiple meanings). When polysemous different meanings of one word retain an internal connection with the main meaning. For example, the word build may mean:

1) construct (build a house); 2) make (make plans);

3) draw (build a triangle); 4) put in ranks (build squads).

All these meanings have not lost connection with the basic general ‘to create, to construct’, i.e. the word retains its polysemantic nature.

With homonymy, the connection between the meanings of a word is lost: beam(log) and beam(ravine); braid(hairstyle) and braid(strip of sushi).

One way to distinguish between polysemy and homonymy can be the compatibility of words. For example: shaft 1 ( embankment), val 2 (wave).

1. city, fortress rampart; pour, strengthen the shaft.

2. high, foaming, ninth, rolling, running. The words val 1 and val 2 have different combinability, therefore, these are homonyms.

battle 1 - sea, deadly, long; fight;

fight 2 - fist, deadly, long; fight;

fight 3 - fist, deadly, long; fight

The words fight 1, fight 2, fight 3 have similar combinability, therefore, these are ambiguous words.

Lexical homonyms arise as a result of various processes occurring in the language.

1) as a result of the coincidence in form of the original word and the borrowed word:

club(smoke) - primordial, related to the words swirl, tangle;

club(institution) – borrowed from in English;

marriage(marriage) - primordial, related to the verb to take;

marriage(defect) - borrowed from German.

2) as a result of the coincidence in form of words borrowed from different sources or from one, but with different meanings: tap(plumbing) - from Dutch - tap(construction) - from German; note(musical) and note(diplomatic document) - from Latin.

3) as a result of the collapse of polysemy and the separation of the word from its original meaning: garden(fruity) and garden(children's) - go back to a common source - the verb plant. These words diverged in meaning and became homonyms in modern Russian.

4) as a result of phonetic processes occurring in the language, or changes in the spelling of a word: never(once upon a time) and once(no time) - originally differed in sounds Ђ And e, which later coincided in one sound e.

5) as a result of word-formation processes, in particular, by attaching affixes with different meanings

cover (re-cover) - cover (block)

Paronyms

Paronyms- these are words that are similar in sound and structure, but have different meanings. Typically, paronyms are words formed from the same root using different affixes. For example: diplomat - dimlomancer- noun common root diploma, distinguished by the suffixes - at and -ant.

Diplomat - executive in the diplomatic service.

Diploma holder- a person awarded an award - a diploma - or writing a diploma.

In speech, paronyms are sometimes mixed, although they mean different things. For example: they say “put on a coat” instead of “put on a coat.” Verbs dress And put on differ in meaning: put on (what) - dress (whom)

Paronyms are distinguished by the synonymous correspondences that each member of the paronymic pair (series) has. For example:

Synonyms

Synonyms- words that sound different, but are semantically identical, denoting the same concept and differing in the sphere of use, shades of meaning, stylistic or emotional coloring. Synonyms belong to the same lexical-grammatical category of words (parts of speech).

For example: synonyms elk, elk, elk- identical in meaning, but belong to different lexical layers: elk- literary word; elk- conversational; Sokhach- dialectal. Several words usually enter into synonymous relationships. They form synonymous series. The word that most fully expresses the meaning common to words of the synonymous series is called dominant(Latin djminans - “dominant”). Dominant is a stylistically neutral, commonly used word; all other members of the synonymous series are often words with additional semantic and stylistic shades of meaning. So, in a synonymous series red, scarlet, crimson the dominant will be the adjective red. The dominant is at the head of the synonymous row and is given in dictionaries at the beginning

Depending on the functions there are semantic And stylistic synonyms.

Semantic or ideographic synonyms differ from each other by elements of lexical meaning: red- ‘the color of blood’; scarlet- ‘bright red’, scarlet- ‘red of a dark shade’.

Stylistic synonyms differ from each other in their expressive and stylistic load and are used in different styles of speech. In a synonymous series: face - face - muzzle - physiognomy - mug word face- the word is stylistically neutral; face(high, book style); muzzle - face - mug- colloquial.

Synonyms arise as a result of various processes occurring in language.

1. As a result of the “splitting” of one lexical meaning into two or more. For example, verb reforge acquired a figurative meaning ‘to change one’s way of thinking and behavior as a result of upbringing’ and became close in meaning to such verbs as re-educate, transform.

2. As a result of borrowing foreign words: breg - shore, city - city. cruise - journey, And hobby - enthusiasm.

3. Due to the use of dialectal, professional words next to literary ones: hut - hut, hayfield - kosovitsa.

4. As a result of word formation processes in the language: digging - digging, piloting - aerobatics

5. As a result of the addition of a negative particle Not to one of the members of the antonymic pair: low - (high) low, rarely - (often) infrequently, enemy - (friend) foe.

ANTONYMS

Antonyms – These are words belonging to the same part of speech and having opposite meanings: young - old, stupid - smart, meet - see off, above - below.

In its own way structure Antonyms are divided into three groups:

1. Antonyms with different roots: good - evil, long - short;

2. Single-root antonyms: faith - unbelief, sunrise - sunset, work - idleness;

3. Intraword antonyms are pairs that are obtained as a result of the development of the meaning of a word to the complete opposite (a process called enantiosemy). N.: borrow(lend) – (borrow), maybe(presumably) – (certainly ): I'll probably come. They probably told me that the commission would arrive soon. Priceless(having a high price).

Antonyms are one of the expressive means of language. They have long been used in CNT, for example, in proverbs: A sweet lie is better than a bitter truth; There is an angel in people, and a devil in houses; The poor do not understand the rich; Learning is light and ignorance is darkness.

Antonyms are also widely used in journalism, especially in headlines: Friends and enemies of tourism; The luck and bad luck of famous people.

Antonyms can serve as a means of creating oxymoron– a figure of speech, which is a combination of two opposing concepts (two words that contradict each other in meaning): bitter joy, ringing silence, sweet pain, a living corpse, adult children.

Typically, an oxymoron is created using the “adjective + noun” model, but other models are also found: “adverb + verb”: Oh how fun it is for her to be sad. So elegantly naked (Ahm.).

Antonymy is used in fiction to express antitheses– a figure of speech in which opposite concepts are contrasted to enhance expressiveness: I won’t better or worse, All That I will, no other, From happiness blaze on cold, From the grief gets cold in summer heat(N. Gribachev). Revolted and old and young (P.); I stupid, And you smart, lively, and I dumbfounded (Color).

In an ironic context, one antonym can be used instead of another: Where, smart, your head is delirious. Using a word in the opposite meaning is called antiphrase. Antiphrases is often resorted to in everyday speech; Thus, they jokingly say to an absent-minded person: how attentive you are! evil: how kind you are!

Antonyms are characterized primarily by contact use in certain contexts. The deliberate collision of antonyms makes it possible to realize them essential functions:

1) opposition: You are rich, I am very poor(P.);

2) mutual exclusion: He had only one opinion about people - good or bad(Sim.);

3) alternation: He either put out the candle or lit it(Ch.);

4) coverage of the entire class of objects, the entire phenomenon, action: From young to old, from morning to evening, both enemies and friends - everyone is tired.

Antonyms can be linguistic And contextual(individual). Unlike linguistic antonyms, the semantic opposite of which appears regularly and does not depend on use (white – black, soft – hard), contextual antonyms are an occasional (random) phenomenon limited by the context: Wolves and Sheep(N. Ostrovsky), Already and Falcon(M. Gorky), boxes - galleries(E. Yevtushenko); daily work– nightly dream(M. Tsvetaeva). What is allowed to Jupiter is not allowed to the bull. Jupiter (god) and bull (livestock) are contrasted in the Latin proverb as antonyms, although they are not.

Grammatical meaning

The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word; The differences between these two types of values are:

1. Grammatical meanings are very abstract, so they characterize large classes of words. For example, the meaning of the verb aspect is always present in the semantic structure of the Russian verb. The lexical meaning is more specific than the grammatical one, so it characterizes only a specific word. Even the most abstract lexical meanings (for example, the meanings of words such as infinity, speed) are less abstract than grammatical meanings.

2. The lexical meaning is expressed by the stem of the word, the grammatical meaning is expressed by special formal indicators (therefore, grammatical meanings are often called formal).

So, grammatical meaning is an abstract (abstract) linguistic meaning expressed by formal grammatical means. A word usually has several grammatical meanings. For example, the noun wolf in the sentence I would gnaw out bureaucratism (M.) with a wolf expresses the grammatical meanings of objectivity, animation, masculine gender, singular, instrumental case (the meaning of the comparison: “like a wolf, like a wolf”). The most general and most important grammatical meaning of a word is called categorical (general categorical); These are the meanings of objectivity in a noun, quantity in a numeral, etc.

The categorical meaning of a word is supplemented and specified by private (particularly categorical) grammatical meanings; Thus, a noun is characterized by particular categorical grammatical meanings of animation ~ inanimateness, gender, number and case.

The grammatical meaning always accompanies the lexical meaning, but the lexical meaning does not always accompany the grammatical meaning.

For example: ocean - person (different lexical meaning, but the same grammatical meaning - noun, singular, ip) [Lekant 2007: 239-240].

Ways of expressing grammatical meanings

In Russian morphology there are different ways expressions of grammatical meanings, i.e. ways of forming word forms: synthetic, analytical and mixed.

In the synthetic method, grammatical meanings are usually expressed by affixation, i.e. the presence or absence of affixes (for example, table, stola; goes, go; beautiful, beautiful, beautiful), much less often - alternating sounds and stress (die - die; oils - special oils), as well as suppletive, i.e. formations from different roots (person - people, good - better). Affixation can be combined with a change in stress (water - water), as well as with an alternation of sounds (sleep - sleep).

With the analytical method, grammatical meanings receive their expression outside the main word, i.e. in other words (listen - I will listen).

With a mixed or hybrid method, grammatical meanings are expressed both synthetically and analytically, i.e. both outside and inside the word. For example, the grammatical meaning of the prepositional case is expressed by a preposition and an ending (in the house), the grammatical meaning of the first person is expressed by a pronoun and an ending (I will come).

Formative affixes can express several grammatical meanings at once, for example: a verb has an ending - ut expresses person, number, and mood [Internet resource 6].

A grammatical category is a set of morphological forms opposed to each other with a common grammatical content. For example, the forms I write - you write - writes indicate a person and are therefore combined into the verbal grammatical category of person; the forms wrote - I am writing - I will write express time and form the category of time, the word forms table - tables, book - books express the idea of the number of objects, they are combined into the category of number, etc. We can also say that grammatical categories are formed private morphological paradigms. Grammatical categories in general have three features.

1) Grammatical categories form a kind of closed systems. The number of members opposed to each other in a grammatical category is predetermined by the structure of the language and in general (in a synchronous section) does not vary. Moreover, each member of the category can be represented by one or several single-functional forms. So, grammatical category the number of nouns is formed by two members, one of which is represented by singular forms (table, book, pen), the other by plural forms (tables, books, feathers). Nouns and adjectives have three genders, a verb has three persons, two types, etc. The quantitative composition of some grammatical categories in the literature is defined differently, which in fact is not related to the volume of the category, but to the assessment of its components. Thus, nouns have 6, 9, 10 and more cases. However, this only reflects different techniques highlighting cases. As for the grammatical structure of the language itself, the case system in it is regulated existing types declination.

2) The expression of grammatical meaning (content) between the forms that form the category is distributed: writing means the first person, writing means the second, writing means the third; table, book, pen indicate the singular, and tables, books, feathers indicate plural, big is masculine, big is feminine, and big is neuter, the shape big does not indicate gender.

3) The forms that form morphological categories must be united by a common content component (which is reflected in the definition of a grammatical category). This is a prerequisite for identifying a grammatical category. Without this commonality, grammatical categories are not formed. For example, the opposition of transitive and intransitive verbs does not form a morphological category precisely because it is not based on general content. For the same reason, other lexico-grammatical categories identified in independent parts of speech are not morphological categories [Kamynina 1999: 10-14].

Significant and functional parts of speech

Parts of speech are the main grammatical classes of words, which are established taking into account the morphological properties of words. These word classes are important not only for morphology, but also for lexicology and syntax.

Words belonging to the same part of speech have common grammatical features:

1) the same generalized grammatical meaning, called subverbal (for example, for all nouns the meaning of objectivity);

2) the same set of morphological categories (nouns are characterized by the categories of animate/inanimate, gender, number and case). In addition, words of the same part of speech have word-formation similarity and perform the same syntactic functions as part of a sentence.

In modern Russian, independent and auxiliary parts of speech, as well as interjections, are distinguished.

Independent parts of speech serve to designate objects, signs, processes and other phenomena of reality. Such words are usually independent parts of a sentence and carry verbal stress. The following independent parts of speech are distinguished: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb.

Within independent parts of speech, fully significant and incompletely significant words are contrasted. Full-nominal words (nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, most adverbs) serve to name certain objects, phenomena, signs, and incompletely significant words (these are pronouns and pronominal adverbs) only point to objects, phenomena, signs without naming them.

Another distinction within the framework of independent parts of speech is important: names (nouns, adjectives, numerals, as well as pronouns) as inflected parts of speech (changed by cases) are opposed to the verb as a part of speech, which is characterized by conjugation (change by moods, tenses, persons) .

Functional parts of speech (particles, conjunctions, prepositions) do not name phenomena of reality, but denote the relationships that exist between these phenomena. They are not independent parts of a sentence and usually do not have verbal stress.

Interjections (ah!, hurray!, etc.) are neither independent nor auxiliary parts of speech; they constitute a special grammatical category of words. Interjections express (but do not name) the speaker’s feelings [Lekant 2007: 243-245].

Since parts of speech are a grammatical concept, it is obvious that the principles and grounds for identifying parts of speech must be primarily grammatical. Firstly, such grounds are the syntactic properties of the word. Some words are included in the grammatical structure of a sentence, others are not. Some of those included in the grammatical composition of a sentence are independent members of the sentence, others are not, since they can only perform the function of a service element that establishes relationships between members of the sentence, parts of the sentence, etc. Secondly, the morphological features of words are essential: their changeability or immutability, the nature of the grammatical meanings that a particular word can express, the system of its forms.

Based on what has been said, all words of the Russian language are divided into those included in the grammatical composition of the sentence and those not included in this composition. The former represent the vast majority of words. Among them, significant and auxiliary words stand out.

Significant words are independent parts of a sentence. These include: nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, state category.

Significant words are usually called parts of speech. Among the significant words, on the morphological basis of changeability-immutability, names and verbs stand out, on the one hand, and adverbs and the category of state, on the other.

The last two categories - adverbs and the category of state - differ in their syntactic function (adverbs serve mainly as adverbs, the category of state - as the predicate of an impersonal sentence: “I’m sad because you’re having fun” (L.), and also in the fact that, unlike adverbs, words state categories are capable of controlling (“I’m sad”, “you’re having fun”; “How fun it is to wear iron sharp feet, Slide along the mirror of standing, smooth rivers!" - P.).

Function words (they are also called particles of speech) are united by the fact that they (being part of the grammatical composition of a sentence) serve only to express various kinds of grammatical relations or participate in the formation of forms of other words, i.e. are not members of the proposal. From a morphological point of view, they are also united by immutability.

These include prepositions, conjunctions and particles. In this case, prepositions serve to express the relationship of the noun to other words, conjunctions establish a connection between the members of the sentence and the parts complex sentence. Particles participate in the formation of some verb forms, in the construction of a certain type of sentence (for example, interrogative). Words that are not part of the grammatical structure of a sentence include modals, interjections and onomatopoeia.

Modal words (perhaps, of course, maybe, probably, apparently, perhaps, of course, etc.) express the speaker’s attitude to the content of the utterance. Interjections serve to express feelings and volitional impulses (ah, oh-oh-oh, scat, well, etc.). Onomatopoeias are words that convey sounds and noises. These last three categories of words, like function words, are unchangeable [Rakhmanova 1997: 20].