Frederick II Frederick II, King of Prussia from 1740. A bright representative of the enlightened
absolutism, the founder of Prussian-German statehood.

In 1756, Frederick attacked Austria's allied Saxony and entered Dresden. He justified his
actions with a “preventive strike”, claiming that a Russian-Austrian war had formed against Prussia
a coalition that was ready for aggression. Then followed the bloody Battle of Lobozicka, in
which Frederick won. In May 1757, Frederick took Prague, but then on June 18, 1757
year he was defeated in the Battle of Kolinsky.
The Battle of Zorndorf on August 25, 1758 ended in victory for the Russians (according to the unwritten laws of that
At the time, the winner was considered the one who had the battlefield left behind him; Battlefield of Zorndorf
remained with the Russians), the Battle of Kunersdorf in 1759 dealt a moral blow to Frederick.
The Austrians occupied Dresden, and the Russians occupied Berlin. Victory provided some respite
at the Battle of Liegnitz, but Frederick was completely exhausted. Only contradictions between
Austrian and Russian generals kept it from final collapse.
The sudden death of the Russian Empress Elizabeth in 1761 brought unexpected relief.
The new Russian Tsar Peter III turned out to be a great admirer of Frederick’s talent, with whom he
concluded a truce. Gained power as a result of the palace
coup, Empress Catherine II did not dare to involve Russia in the war again and withdrew everything
Russian troops from the occupied territories. Over the next decades she
maintained friendly relations with Frederick in line with the so-called policy. northern chord.

Pyotr Aleksandrovich Rumyantsev

Manifestation in the Seven Years' War:
By the beginning of the Seven Years' War, Rumyantsev already had the rank of major general. As part of the Russian troops under
under the command of S. F. Apraksin, he arrived in Courland in 1757. On August 19 (30) he distinguished himself
at the Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf. He was entrusted with leading a reserve of four infantry
regiments - Grenadier, Troitsky, Voronezh and Novgorod - which was located on another
side of the forest bordering the Jägersdorf field. The battle continued with varying success, and
when the Russian right flank began to retreat under the attacks of the Prussians, Rumyantsev, without orders,
on his own initiative he threw his fresh reserve against the left flank of the Prussian infantry.
In January 1758, the columns of Saltykov and Rumyantsev (30,000) set out on a new campaign and
occupied Königsberg, and then all of East Prussia. In the summer, Rumyantsev's cavalry
(4000 sabers) covered the maneuvers of Russian troops in Prussia, and its actions were
recognized as exemplary. In the Battle of Zorndorf Rumyantsev, direct participation
did not accept, however, after the battle, covering Fermor’s retreat to Pomerania, 20
dismounted dragoon and horse-grenadier squadrons of Rumyantsev's detachment were detained
for the whole day the 20,000-strong Prussian corps at Pass Krug.
In August 1759, Rumyantsev and his division took part in the Battle of Kunersdorf.
The division was located in the center of Russian positions, at the height of the Big Spitz. She's the one
became one of the main targets of attack by Prussian troops after they crushed the left flank
Russians. Rumyantsev's division, however, despite heavy artillery fire and
the onslaught of Seydlitz's heavy cavalry (the best forces of the Prussians), repulsed
numerous attacks and went into a bayonet counterattack, which he personally led
Rumyantsev. This blow threw back the army of King Frederick II, and it began to retreat,
pursued by cavalry.

Willim Villimovich Fermor

Manifestation in the Seven Years' War:
The peak of Fermor's military career came during the Seven Years' War. With the rank of general-in-chief he
brilliantly takes Memel, contributes to the victory of Russian troops at Gross-Jägersdorf (1757).
In 1758 he became commander of the Russian troops instead of S. F. Apraksin,
takes Königsberg and all of East Prussia. It was erected by Empress Maria Theresa
to the dignity of a count. Unsuccessfully besieged Danzig and Küstrin; commanded the Russians
troops in the battle of Zorndorf, for which he received the Order of Andrew
First Called and St. Anne.
Post-war life:
Participated in the battle of Kunersdorf (1759). In 1760 he acted along the banks of the Oder for
diverting Friedrich's forces, for a short time he replaced the ill Saltykov at his post
commander-in-chief, and at that time one of his detachments (under
Totleben's command) Berlin was occupied. At this time, in the position of duty officer
officer, and then general duty officer under Fermor, the future great Russian serves
commander A.V. Suvorov.
At the end of the war in 1762, he was discharged from military service. Appointed next year
Governor-General of Smolensk, and after 1764 headed the Senate commission on
salt and wine collections. Empress Catherine II entrusted him with the restoration
the city of Tver, almost completely destroyed by fire. In 1768 or 1770 he came out in
resignation, died on September 8 (19), 1771.

Stepan Fedorovich Apraksin

Stepan Fedorovich Apraksin
Manifestation in the Seven Years' War:
When Russia concluded an anti-Prussian alliance with Austria, Empress Elizabeth
Petrovna promoted Apraksin to field marshal and appointed
commander-in-chief of the active army.
In May 1757, Apraksin’s army, numbering up to 100 thousand people, of which -
20 thousand irregular troops set out from Livonia in the direction of the river
Neman. 20 thousandth detachment under the command of General-in-Chief Fermor under
supported by the Russian fleet, he besieged Memel, the capture of which took place on June 25 (according to the old
style) in 1757 was the signal for the start of the campaign.
Apraksin with the main forces moved in the direction of Verzhbolovo and Gumbinen.
The enemy of the Russian army in East Prussia was left for her
guard corps under the command of Field Marshal Lewald, numbering
30.5 thousand soldiers and 10 thousand militias. Having learned about the roundabout movement of the Russian
army, Lewald came out to meet it with the intention of attacking the Russians
troops. General battle between the Prussian and Russian armies
occurred on August 19 (30), 1757 near the village of Gross-Jägersdorf and ended
victory of the Russian troops. In five hours of battle, the losses of the Prussian side exceeded
4.5 thousand people, Russian troops - 5.7 thousand, of which 1,487 were killed. The news about
the victory was received with delight in St. Petersburg, and Apraksin received it as his coat of arms
two cannons placed crosswise.

Pyotr Semyonovich Saltykov

Appearance in the Seven Years' War
In the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) the Russian Empire fought
ally of France and Austria. Russia's main enemy in
this war was Prussia, whose army was personally led
King Frederick II. However, the period of this war from 1757 to 1758
the year was not very successful for the Russian army,
especially after the bloody Pyrrhic victory of Russian troops over
Frederick's army at Zorndorf. Ineffectiveness of actions
and the fall in the authority of the Russian commander-in-chief
Fermor's troops led to the fact that
Empress Elizabeth dismissed him. Replaced it
Saltykov held this post - the appointment took place in 1759.
Kingdom of Naples
Sardinian Kingdom Commanders Frederick II
F. W. Seydlitz
George II
George III
Robert Clive
Ferdinand of Brunswick Earl of Down
Count Lassi
Prince of Lorraine
Ernst Gideon Loudon
Louis XV
Louis-Joseph de Montcalm
Empress Elizabeth
P. S. Saltykov
Charles III
August III Strengths of the parties

• 1756 - 250 000 soldier: Prussia 200,000, Hanover 50,000
• 1759 - 220 000 Prussian soldiers
• 1760 - 120 000 Prussian soldiers

• 1756 - 419 000 soldier: Russian Empire 100,000 soldiers
• 1759 - 391 000 soldiers: France 125,000, Holy Roman Empire 45,000, Austria 155,000, Sweden 16,000, Russian Empire 50,000
• 1760 - 220 000 soldier

Losses see below see below

The main confrontation in Europe was between Austria and Prussia over Silesia, which Austria had lost in the previous Silesian Wars. That's why the Seven Years' War is also called third Silesian war. The First (-) and Second (-) Silesian Wars are part of the War of the Austrian Succession. In Swedish historiography the war is known as Pomeranian War(Swede. Pommerska kriget), in Canada - as "War of Conquest"(English) The War of the Conquest) and in India as "Third Karnatic War"(English) The Third Carnatic War). The North American theater of war is called French and Indian War.

The designation “Seven Years’ War” was given in the eighties of the eighteenth century; before that it was referred to as a “recent war.”

Causes of the war

Opposing coalitions in Europe in 1756

The first shots of the Seven Years' War rang out long before its official announcement, and not in Europe, but overseas. In - gg. Anglo-French colonial rivalry in North America led to border skirmishes between English and French colonists. By the summer of 1755, the clashes resulted in an open armed conflict, in which both allied Indians and regular military units began to participate (see French and Indian War). In 1756, Great Britain officially declared war on France.

"Reversing Alliances"

This conflict disrupted the established system of military-political alliances in Europe and caused a foreign policy reorientation of a number of European powers, known as the “reversal of alliances.” The traditional rivalry between Austria and France for hegemony on the continent was weakened by the emergence of a third power: Prussia, after Frederick II came to power in 1740, began to claim a leading role in European politics. Having won the Silesian Wars, Frederick took Silesia, one of the richest Austrian provinces, from Austria, as a result increasing the territory of Prussia from 118.9 thousand to 194.8 thousand square kilometers, and the population from 2,240,000 to 5,430,000 people. It is clear that Austria could not easily accept the loss of Silesia.

Having started a war with France, Great Britain entered into a treaty of alliance with Prussia in January 1756, thereby wanting to protect Hanover, the hereditary possession of the English king on the continent, from the threat of a French attack. Frederick, considering a war with Austria inevitable and realizing the limitations of his resources, relied on “English gold”, as well as on the traditional influence of England on Russia, hoping to keep Russia from participating in the upcoming war and thereby avoid a war on two fronts . Having overestimated England's influence on Russia, he, at the same time, clearly underestimated the indignation caused by his agreement with the British in France. As a result, Frederick will have to fight a coalition of the three strongest continental powers and their allies, which he dubbed the “union of three women” (Maria Theresa, Elizabeth and Madame Pompadour). However, behind the jokes of the Prussian king in relation to his opponents lies a lack of confidence in his own strength: the forces in the war on the continent are too unequal, England, which does not have a strong land army, except for subsidies, can do little to help him.

The conclusion of the Anglo-Prussian alliance pushed Austria, thirsting for revenge, to move closer to its old enemy - France, for which Prussia also became an enemy from now on (France, which supported Frederick in the first Silesian wars and saw in Prussia only an obedient instrument for crushing Austrian power, I was able to make sure that Friedrich did not even think about taking into account the role assigned to him). The author of the new foreign policy course was the famous Austrian diplomat of that time, Count Kaunitz. A defensive alliance was signed between France and Austria at Versailles, to which Russia joined at the end of 1756.

In Russia, the strengthening of Prussia was perceived as a real threat to its western borders and interests in the Baltic states and northern Europe. Close ties with Austria, a treaty of union with which was signed back in 1746, also influenced Russia’s position in the brewing European conflict. Traditionally close ties also existed with England. It is curious that, having broken diplomatic relations with Prussia long before the start of the war, Russia, nevertheless, did not break diplomatic relations with England throughout the war.

None of the countries participating in the coalition was interested in the complete destruction of Prussia, hoping to use it in the future for their own interests, but all were interested in weakening Prussia, in returning it to the borders that existed before the Silesian Wars. That. The coalition participants fought for the restoration of the old system of political relations on the continent, disrupted by the results of the War of the Austrian Succession. Having united against a common enemy, the participants in the anti-Prussian coalition did not even think of forgetting about their traditional differences. Disagreement in the enemy’s camp, caused by conflicting interests and having a detrimental effect on the conduct of the war, was, in the end, one of the main reasons that allowed Prussia to resist the confrontation.

Until the end of 1757, when the successes of the newly-minted David in the fight against the “Goliath” of the anti-Prussian coalition created a club of admirers for the king in Germany and beyond, it did not occur to anyone in Europe to seriously consider Frederick “the Great”: at that time, most Europeans saw He is an impudent upstart who is long overdue for being put in his place. To achieve this goal, the Allies fielded a huge army of 419,000 soldiers against Prussia. Frederick II had at his disposal only 200,000 soldiers plus 50,000 defenders of Hanover, hired with English money.

Characters

Russian autocrat Elizaveta Petrovna

Austrian Empress Maria Theresa

Prussian King Frederick II

Louis XV, King of France

George II, King of England

European theater of war

Eastern European Theater of Operations Seven Years' War

Lobositz - Reichenberg - Prague - Kolin - Hastenbeck - Gross-Jägersdorf - Berlin (1757) - Moys - Rosbach - Breslau - Leuthen - Olmütz - Krefeld - Domstadl - Küstrin - Zorndorf - Tarmow - Loutherberg (1758) - Fehrbellin - Hochkirch - Bergen - Palzig – Minden – Kunersdorf – Hoyerswerda – Maxen – Meissen – Landeshut – Emsdorf – Warburg – Liegnitz – Klosterkampen – Berlin (1760) – Torgau – Fehlinghausen – Kolberg – Wilhelmsthal – Burkersdorf – Lutherberg (1762) – Reichenbach – Freiberg

1756: attack on Saxony

Military operations in Europe in 1756

Without waiting for Prussia's opponents to deploy their forces, Frederick II was the first to begin military operations on August 28, 1756, suddenly invading Saxony, allied with Austria, and occupying it. On September 1, 1756, Elizaveta Petrovna declared war on Prussia. On September 9, the Prussians surrounded the Saxon army encamped near Pirna. On October 1, going to the rescue of the Saxons, the 33.5 thousand army of the Austrian Field Marshal Brown was defeated at Lobositz. Finding itself in a hopeless situation, the eighteen-thousand-strong army of Saxony capitulated on October 16. Captured, the Saxon soldiers were forced into the Prussian army. Later they would “thank” Frederick by running over to the enemy in entire battalions.

Seven Years' War in Europe

Saxony, which had armed forces the size of an average army corps and, moreover, was bound by eternal troubles in Poland (the Saxon elector was also the Polish king), did not, of course, pose any military threat to Prussia. The aggression against Saxony was caused by Frederick's intentions:

• use Saxony as a convenient base of operations for the invasion of Austrian Bohemia and Moravia, the supply of Prussian troops here could be organized by waterways along the Elbe and Oder, while the Austrians would have to use inconvenient mountain roads;
• transfer the war to the territory of the enemy, thus forcing him to pay for it and, finally,
• use the human and material resources of prosperous Saxony for their own strengthening. Subsequently, he carried out his plan to rob this country so successfully that some Saxons still dislike the inhabitants of Berlin and Brandenburg.

Despite this, in German (not Austrian!) historiography it is still customary to consider the war, on the part of Prussia, to be a defensive war. The reasoning is that the war would still have been started by Austria and its allies, regardless of whether Frederick attacked Saxony or not. Opponents of this point of view object: the war began, not least because of the Prussian conquests, and its first act was aggression against a defenseless neighbor.

1757: Battles of Kolin, Rosbach and Leuthen, Russia begins hostilities

Bohemia, Silesia

Operations in Saxony and Silesia in 1757

Having strengthened himself by absorbing Saxony, Frederick, at the same time, achieved the opposite effect, spurring his opponents to active offensive actions. Now he had no choice but, to use the German expression, “running forward” (German. Flucht nach vorne). Counting on the fact that France and Russia will not be able to enter the war before the summer, Frederick intends to defeat Austria before that time. Early in 1757, the Prussian army, moving in four columns, entered Austrian territory in Bohemia. The Austrian army under the command of the Prince of Lorraine numbered 60,000 soldiers. On May 6, the Prussians defeated the Austrians and blocked them in Prague. Having taken Prague, Frederick plans to march on Vienna without delay. However, the blitzkrieg plans were dealt a blow: a 54,000-strong Austrian army under the command of Field Marshal L. Down came to the aid of the besieged. On June 18, 1757, in the vicinity of the city of Kolin, a 34,000-strong Prussian army entered into battle with the Austrians. Frederick II lost this battle, losing 14,000 men and 45 guns. The heavy defeat not only destroyed the myth of the invincibility of the Prussian commander, but also, more importantly, forced Frederick II to lift the blockade of Prague and hastily retreat to Saxony. Soon, the threat that arose in Thuringia from the French and the Imperial Army (“the Tsars”) forced him to leave there with the main forces. Having from this moment on a significant numerical superiority, the Austrians win a series of victories over Frederick's generals (at Moise on September 7, at Breslau on November 22), and the key Silesian fortresses of Schweidnitz (now Świdnica, Poland) and Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland) are in their hands. In October 1757, the Austrian general Hadik managed to briefly capture the capital of Prussia, the city of Berlin, with a sudden raid of a flying detachment. Having warded off the threat from the French and the “Caesars,” Frederick II transferred an army of forty thousand to Silesia and on December 5 won a decisive victory over the Austrian army at Leuthen. As a result of this victory, the situation that existed at the beginning of the year was restored. Thus, the result of the campaign was a “combat draw.”

Central Germany

1758: The battles of Zorndorf and Hochkirch do not bring decisive success to either side

The new commander-in-chief of the Russians was General-in-Chief Willim Fermor, famous for the capture of Memel in the previous campaign. At the beginning of 1758, he occupied, without meeting resistance, all of East Prussia, including its capital, the city of Königsberg, then heading towards Brandenburg. In August he besieged Küstrin, a key fortress on the road to Berlin. Frederick immediately moved towards him. The battle took place on August 14 near the village of Zorndorf and was notable for its stunning bloodshed. The Russians had 42,000 soldiers in the army with 240 guns, and Frederick had 33,000 soldiers with 116 guns. The battle revealed several big problems in the Russian army - insufficient interaction between individual units, poor moral training of the observation corps (the so-called “Shuvalovites”), and finally called into question the competence of the commander-in-chief himself. At a critical moment in the battle, Fermor left the army, did not direct the course of the battle for some time, and appeared only towards the denouement. Clausewitz later called the Battle of Zorndorf the strangest battle of the Seven Years' War, referring to its chaotic, unpredictable course. Having started “according to the rules,” it eventually resulted in a great massacre, breaking up into many separate battles, in which the Russian soldiers showed unsurpassed tenacity; according to Friedrich, it was not enough to kill them, they also had to be knocked down. Both sides fought until exhaustion and suffered huge losses. The Russian army lost 16,000 people, the Prussians 11,000. The opponents spent the night on the battlefield, the next day Fermor was the first to withdraw his troops, thereby giving Frederick a reason to attribute the victory to himself. However, he did not dare to pursue the Russians. Russian troops retreated to the Vistula. General Palmbach, sent by Fermor to besiege Kolberg, stood for a long time under the walls of the fortress without accomplishing anything.

On October 14, the Austrians operating in South Saxony managed to defeat Frederick at Hochkirch, however, without any special consequences. Having won the battle, the Austrian commander Daun led his troops back to Bohemia.

The war with the French was more successful for the Prussians; they beat them three times in a year: at Rheinberg, at Krefeld and at Mer. In general, although the campaign of 1758 ended more or less successfully for the Prussians, it further weakened the Prussian troops, who suffered significant, irreplaceable losses for Frederick during the three years of the war: from 1756 to 1758 he lost, not counting those captured, 43 the general was killed or died from wounds received in battle, among them, his best military leaders, such as Keith, Winterfeld, Schwerin, Moritz von Dessau and others.

1759: Defeat of the Prussians at Kunersdorf, “miracle of the House of Brandenburg”

On May 8 (19), 1759, Chief General P. S. Saltykov was unexpectedly appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian army, concentrated at that time in Poznan, instead of V. V. Fermor. (The reasons for Fermor’s resignation are not entirely clear; however, it is known that the St. Petersburg Conference repeatedly expressed dissatisfaction with Fermor’s reports, their irregularity and confusion; Fermor could not account for spending significant sums on the maintenance of the army. Perhaps the decision to resign was influenced by the indecisive the outcome of the battle of Zorndorf and the unsuccessful sieges of Küstrin and Kolberg). On July 7, 1759, a forty-thousand-strong Russian army marched west to the Oder River, in the direction of the city of Krosen, intending to link up with Austrian troops there. The debut of the new commander-in-chief was successful: on July 23, in the battle of Palzig (Kai), he completely defeated the twenty-eight thousandth corps of the Prussian General Wedel. On August 3, 1759, the allies met in the city of Frankfurt an der Oder, which had been occupied by Russian troops three days before.

At this time, the Prussian king with an army of 48,000 people, possessing 200 guns, was moving towards the enemy from the south. On August 10, he crossed to the right bank of the Oder River and took a position east of the village of Kunersdorf. On August 12, 1759, the famous battle of the Seven Years' War took place - the Battle of Kunersdorf. Frederick was completely defeated; out of an army of 48 thousand, by his own admission, he did not have even 3 thousand soldiers left. “To tell the truth,” he wrote to his minister after the battle, “I believe that everything is lost. I will not survive the death of my Fatherland. Goodbye forever". After the victory at Kunersdorf, the Allies could only deliver the final blow, take Berlin, the road to which was clear, and thereby force Prussia to capitulate, however, disagreements in their camp did not allow them to use the victory and end the war. Instead of advancing to Berlin, they withdrew their troops away, accusing each other of violating allied obligations. Frederick himself called his unexpected salvation “the miracle of the House of Brandenburg.” Frederick escaped, but setbacks continued to haunt him until the end of the year: on November 20, the Austrians, together with imperial troops, managed to encircle and force the 15,000-strong corps of the Prussian General Finck to surrender without a fight at Maxen.

The severe defeats of 1759 prompted Frederick to turn to England with the initiative to convene a peace congress. The British supported it all the more willingly because they, for their part, considered the main goals in this war to be achieved. On November 25, 1759, 5 days after Maxen, representatives of Russia, Austria and France were sent an invitation to a peace congress in Rysvik. France signaled its participation, however, the matter ended in nothing due to the irreconcilable position taken by Russia and Austria, who hoped to use the victories of 1759 to deal the final blow to Prussia in the following year's campaign.

Nicholas Pocock. "Battle of the Gulf of Quiberon" (1812)

Meanwhile, England defeated the French fleet at sea in the Gulf of Quiberon.

1760: Frederick's Pyrrhic victory at Torgau

The war thus continued. In 1760, Frederick had difficulty raising the size of his army to 120,000 soldiers. The Franco-Austro-Russian troops by this time numbered up to 220,000 soldiers. However, as in previous years, the Allies' numerical superiority was negated by the lack of a unified plan and inconsistency in actions. The Prussian king, trying to impede the actions of the Austrians in Silesia, on August 1, 1760, transported his thirty thousand army across the Elbe and, with passive pursuit of the Austrians, arrived in the Liegnitz area by August 7. Misleading the stronger enemy (Field Marshal Daun had about 90,000 soldiers by this time), Frederick II first actively maneuvered and then decided to break through to Breslau. While Frederick and Daun were mutually exhausting the troops with their marches and countermarches, the Austrian corps of General Laudon on August 15 in the Liegnitz area suddenly collided with Prussian troops. Frederick II unexpectedly attacked and defeated Laudon's corps. The Austrians lost up to 10,000 killed and 6,000 captured. Frederick, who lost about 2,000 people killed and wounded in this battle, managed to escape from the encirclement.

Having barely escaped encirclement, the Prussian king almost lost his own capital. On October 3 (September 22), 1760, Major General Totleben’s detachment stormed Berlin. The assault was repulsed and Totleben had to retreat to Köpenick, where he waited for the corps of Lieutenant General Z. G. Chernyshev (reinforced by Panin’s 8,000-strong corps) and the Austrian corps of General Lassi, appointed as reinforcements. On the evening of October 8, at a military council in Berlin, due to the overwhelming numerical superiority of the enemy, a decision was made to retreat, and that same night the Prussian troops defending the city left for Spandau, leaving a garrison in the city as an “object” of surrender. The garrison brings surrender to Totleben, as the general who first besieged Berlin. Panin's corps and Krasnoshchekov's Cossacks take over the pursuit of the enemy; they manage to defeat the Prussian rearguard and capture more than a thousand prisoners. On the morning of October 9, 1760, Totleben's Russian detachment and the Austrians (the latter in violation of the terms of surrender) entered Berlin. In the city, guns and rifles were captured, gunpowder and weapons warehouses were blown up. An indemnity was imposed on the population. Upon news of the approach of Frederick with the main forces of the Prussians, the allies, by order of the command, leave the capital of Prussia.

Having received news on the way that the Russians had abandoned Berlin, Frederick turned to Saxony. While he was conducting military operations in Silesia, the Imperial Army (“the Tsars”) managed to oust the weak Prussian forces left in Saxony to screen, Saxony was lost to Frederick. He cannot allow this in any way: he desperately needs the human and material resources of Saxony to continue the war. On November 3, 1760, the last major battle of the Seven Years' War took place near Torgau. He is distinguished by incredible fierceness, victory leans first to one side, then to the other several times during the day. The Austrian commander Daun manages to send a messenger to Vienna with the news of the defeat of the Prussians, and only by 9 pm it becomes clear that he was in a hurry. Frederick emerges victorious, however, it is a Pyrrhic victory: in one day he loses 40% of his army. He is no longer able to make up for such losses; in the last period of the war he is forced to abandon offensive actions and give the initiative to his opponents in the hope that, due to their indecision and slowness, they will not be able to take advantage of it properly.

In the secondary theaters of war, Frederick's opponents had some successes: the Swedes managed to establish themselves in Pomerania, the French in Hesse.

1761-1763: the second “miracle of the Brandenburg House”

In 1761, no significant clashes occur: the war is waged mainly by maneuvering. The Austrians manage to recapture Schweidnitz, Russian troops under the command of General Rumyantsev take Kolberg (now Kolobrzeg). The capture of Kolberg would be the only major event of the 1761 campaign in Europe.

No one in Europe, not excluding Frederick himself, at this time believes that Prussia will be able to avoid defeat: the resources of a small country are incommensurate with the power of its opponents, and the further the war continues, the more important this factor becomes. And then, when Frederick was already actively probing through intermediaries for the possibility of starting peace negotiations, his irreconcilable opponent, Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, dies, having once declared her determination to continue the war to the victorious end, even if she had to sell half of her dresses to do so. On January 5, 1762, Peter III ascended the Russian throne, who saved Prussia from defeat by concluding the Peace of St. Petersburg with Frederick, his longtime idol. As a result, Russia voluntarily abandoned all its acquisitions in this war (East Prussia with Königsberg, the inhabitants of which, including Immanuel Kant, had already sworn allegiance to the Russian crown) and provided Frederick with a corps under the command of Count Z. G. Chernyshev for the war against Austrians, their recent allies. It is understandable that Friedrich ingratiated himself so much with his Russian admirer as never before with anyone else in his life. The latter, however, needed little: the eccentric Peter was prouder of the title of Prussian colonel, granted to him by Frederick, than of the Russian imperial crown.

Asian theater of war

Indian campaign

Main article: Indian Campaign of the Seven Years' War

British landing in the Philippines

Main article: Philippine Campaign

Central American Theater of War

Main articles: Guadalupe Campaign , Dominican Campaign , Martinique Campaign , Cuban campaign

South American theater of war

European politics and the Seven Years' War. Chronological table

Year, date	Event
June 2, 1746
October 18, 1748	Aachen world. End of the War of the Austrian Succession
January 16, 1756	Westminster Convention between Prussia and England
May 1, 1756	Defensive alliance between France and Austria at Versailles
May 17, 1756	England declares war on France
January 11, 1757	Russia joins the Treaty of Versailles
January 22, 1757	Union Treaty between Russia and Austria
January 29, 1757	The Holy Roman Empire declares war on Prussia
May 1, 1757	Offensive alliance between France and Austria at Versailles
January 22, 1758	Estates of East Prussia swear allegiance to the Russian crown
April 11, 1758	Subsidy Treaty between Prussia and England
April 13, 1758	Subsidy treaty between Sweden and France
May 4, 1758	Treaty of Union between France and Denmark
January 7, 1758	Extension of the subsidy agreement between Prussia and England
January 30-31, 1758	Subsidy Treaty between France and Austria
November 25, 1759	Declaration of Prussia and England on the convening of a peace congress
April 1, 1760	Extension of the union treaty between Russia and Austria
January 12, 1760	Latest extension of the subsidy treaty between Prussia and England
April 2, 1761	Treaty of Friendship and Trade between Prussia and Turkey
June-July 1761	Separate peace negotiations between France and England
August 8, 1761	Convention between France and Spain concerning the war with England
January 4, 1762	England declares war on Spain
January 5, 1762	Death of Elizaveta Petrovna
February 4, 1762	Pact of Alliance between France and Spain
May 5, 1762

Believing the oaths of a traitor is the same as believing the piety of the devil

Elizabeth 1

The fifties of the 18th century brought changes in the political situation in Europe. Austria has lost its position. England and France were in a state of conflict in the struggle for dominance on the American continent. The German army developed at a rapid pace and was considered invincible in Europe.

Causes of the war

By 1756, two coalitions had emerged in Europe. As mentioned above, England and France determined who would dominate the American continent. The British secured the support of the Germans. The French won over Austria, Saxony and Russia.

The course of the war - the basis of the event

The war was started by the German king Frederick II. He struck Saxony and in August 1756 completely destroyed its army. Russia, fulfilling its allied duty, sends an army led by General Apraksin to help. The Russians were given the task of capturing Konigsberg, which was guarded by a forty thousand-strong German army. A major battle between the Russian and German armies took place near the village of Gross-Jägersdorf. On August 19, 1757, the Russians defeated the German troops, forcing them to flee. The myth of the invincibility of the German army was dispelled. A key role in this victory was played by P.A. Rumyantsev, who connected reserves in time and dealt a terrible blow to the Germans. The commander of the Russian army, Apraksin S.F., knowing that Empress Elizabeth was sick and her heir Peter sympathized with the Germans, ordered the Russian army not to pursue the Germans. This step allowed the Germans to calmly retreat and quickly gather their strength again.

Empress Elizabeth recovered and removed Apraksin from command of the army. Seven Years' War 1757-1762 continued. Fermor V.V. began to control the Russian army. Soon after his appointment, in 1757 Fermor took possession of Koenisberg. Empress Elizabeth was pleased with this conquest and in January 1578 signed a decree according to which the lands of East Prussia were transferred to Russia.

In 1758, a new major battle took place between the Russian and German armies. It happened near the village of Zorndorf. The Germans attacked fiercely, they had the advantage. Fermor shamefully fled from the battlefield, but the Russian army survived, again defeating the Germans.

In 1759, P.S. Saltykov was appointed commander of the Russian army, who in the first year inflicted a severe defeat on the Germans near Kunersdorf. After this, the Russian army continued its advance to the west and captured Berlin in September 1760. In 1761, the large German fortress of Kolberg fell.

End of hostilities

Allied troops did not help either Russia or Prussia. Drawn into this war by France on the one hand and England on the other, the Russians and Germans exterminated each other while the British and French decided on their world domination.

After the fall of Kohlberg, the Prussian king Frederick II was in despair. German history says that he tried to abdicate the throne several times. There are cases when at the same time Frederick II tried to commit suicide. When it seemed that the situation was hopeless, the unexpected happened. Elizabeth died in Russia. Her successor was Peter 3, married to a German princess and with a love for everything German. This emperor shamefully signed an alliance treaty with Prussia, as a result of which Russia received absolutely nothing. For seven years, Russians shed blood in Europe, but this did not produce any results for the country. The traitor emperor, as Peter 3 was called in the Russian army, saved Germany from destruction by signing an alliance. For this he paid with his life.

An alliance treaty with Prussia was signed in 1761. After Catherine 2 came to power in 1762, this agreement was terminated, however, the empress did not risk sending Russian troops to Europe again.

Key events:

• 1756 - Defeat of France by England. The beginning of Russia's war against Prussia.
• 1757 - Russian victory in the battle of Groß-Jägersdorf. Prussian victory in France and Austria at Rosbach.
• 1758 - Russian troops took Konigsberg
• 1759 - Victory of the Russian army in the battle of Kunersdorf
• 1760 - Capture of Berlin by the Russian army
• 1761 - Victory in the battle of Kolberg fortress
• 1762 - Peace Treaty between Prussia and Russia. Return to Frederick 2 of all lands lost during the war
• 1763 - The Seven Years' War ended

The Seven Years' War is commonly referred to in historiography as the conflict between Prussia, Portugal, Russia, and Britain on the one hand and the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, Sweden, and France on the other.
One of the greatest Britons, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, called the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) “the First World War,” since it took place on several continents and involved enormous human resources.
The Seven Years' War was also called the "first trench war", because it was then that quickly erected fortifications, redoubts, etc. were used on a large scale. During the conflict, artillery pieces also began to be widely used - the number of artillery in armies increased 3 times.

Causes of the war

One of the main reasons for the Seven Years' War is considered to be the Anglo-French conflicts in North America. There was intense colonial rivalry between the countries. In 1755, a war began in America between England and France, during which indigenous tribes also took part. The British government officially declared war in 1756.

It was the conflict between the French and the British that violated all the alliances and agreements that had developed in Western Europe. Prussia, a once weak state, began to gain power after Frederick II came to power, thereby pushing out France and Austria.
After the war with France had already begun, the British entered into an alliance with a new powerful player in the political arena - Prussia. Austria, which had previously lost the war to Prussia and ceded Silesia, entered into negotiations with France. In 1755, France and Austria signed a defensive alliance, and in 1756 the Russian Empire also joined this alliance. Thus, Frederick found himself embroiled in a conflict against three powerful states. England, which at that moment did not have a powerful land army, could only help Prussia with funding.

France, Austria and Russia were not interested in the complete destruction of Prussia, but each of them wanted to significantly weaken the country and then use it to their own advantage. Thus, we can say that France, Austria and Russia sought to resume the old political picture of Europe.

The balance of enemy forces at the beginning of hostilities in Europe
Anglo-Prussian side:

Prussia - 200 thousand people;
England – 90 thousand people;
Hannover – 50 thousand people.

In total, the Anglo-Prussian coalition had 340 thousand fighters at its disposal.
Anti-Prussian coalition:

Spain – 25 thousand people;
Austria – 200 thousand people;
France – 200 thousand people;
Russia – 330 thousand people.

Opponents of the Anglo-Prussian side were able to assemble an army with a total number of 750 thousand people, which was more than twice the strength of their enemies. Thus, we can see the complete superiority of the anti-Prussian coalition in manpower at the beginning of hostilities.

On August 28, 1756, the Emperor of Prussia, Frederick II the Great, was the first to start the war, without waiting for the moment when his enemies would join forces and march on Prussia.
First of all, Frederick went to war against Saxony. Already on September 12, the Russian Empire responded to Prussia’s aggression and declared war on it.

In October, an Austrian army was sent to help Saxony, but Frederick defeated it at the Battle of Lobositz. Thus, the Saxon army was left in a hopeless situation. On October 16, Saxony capitulated, and its fighting forces were forced into the ranks of the Prussian army.

European theater of war in 1757

Frederick again decided not to wait for aggression from France and the Russian Empire, but decided to defeat Austria in the meantime and throw it out of the conflict.

In 1757, the Prussian army entered the Austrian province of Bohemia. Austria sent 60 thousand people to stop Frederick, but was defeated, as a result of which the Austrian army was blocked in Prague. In June 1757, Frederick lost the battle to the Austrians without taking Prague, after which he was forced to return to Saxony.
The initiative was seized by Austrian troops and during 1757 they inflicted several defeats on the Prussian army, and in October of the same year they managed to capture the capital of Prussia, Berlin.

Meanwhile, Frederick and his army defended their borders from the West - from French aggression. Upon learning of the fall of Berlin, Frederick sends 40 thousand soldiers to regain the advantage and defeat the Austrians. On December 5, leading the army in person, Frederick the Great inflicts a crushing defeat on the Austrians at Leuthen. Thus, the situation at the end of 1757 returned the opponents to the beginning of the year, and the military campaigns ultimately ended in a “draw.”

European theater of war in 1758

After an unsuccessful campaign in 1757, the Russian army under the command of Fermor occupied East Prussia. In 1758, Koenigsberg also fell under the pressure of the Russian army.

In August 1858, the Russian army was already approaching Berlin. Frederick advances the Prussian army to meet. On August 14, the battle takes place near the village of Zorndorf. A bloody, chaotic battle ensued, and eventually both armies retreated. The Russian army returned across the Vistula. Frederick withdrew his troops to Saxony.

Meanwhile, the Prussian army is fighting against the French. During 1758, Frederick inflicted three major defeats on the French, which also seriously weakened the Prussian army.

European theater of operations in 1759

On July 23, 1759, the Russian army under the command of Saltykov defeated the Prussian army in the Battle of Palzig. Frederick moved towards the Russian army from the south and on August 12, 1759, the Battle of Kunersdofra began. Having a numerical advantage, the Austrian-Russian army was able to deal a crushing blow to Frederick. The king had only 3 thousand soldiers left and the road to Berlin was already open.
Friedrich understood that the situation was hopeless. And yet, a miracle happened - due to disagreements, the allies left Prussia, not daring to go to Berlin.

In 1759, Frederick asked for peace, but was refused. The Allies intend to completely defeat Prussia next year by taking Berlin.
Meanwhile, England inflicted a crushing defeat on the French at sea.
European theater of operations in 1760
Although the Allies had a numerical advantage, they did not have a coordinated plan of action, which Frederick II continued to exploit.
At the beginning of the year, Frederick with difficulty reassembled an army of 200 thousand people and already in August 1760, not far from Liegnitz, he defeated the corps of the Austrian army.

Allies storm Berlin

In October 1760, the Allies stormed Berlin, but the defenders repelled the attack. On October 8, seeing the enemy's advantage, the Prussian army deliberately left the city. Already on October 9, the Russian army accepted the surrender of the Prussian capital. Then information about Frederick’s approach reaches the Russian command, after which they leave the capital, and the King of Prussia, having heard about the retreat, deploys his army to Saxony.

On November 3, 1760, one of the largest battles of the war takes place - at Torgau, Frederick defeats the Allied armies.
European theater of operations in 1761-1763

In 1761, neither side was actively fighting. The Allies are confident that Prussia's defeat cannot be avoided. Frederick himself thought differently.

In 1762, the new ruler of the Russian Empire, Peter III, concluded the Peace of St. Petersburg with Frederick and thereby saved Prussia from defeat. The Emperor gives up the captured territories in East Prussia and sends an army to support Frederick.
Peter's actions caused discontent, as a result of which the emperor was thrown off the throne and died under strange circumstances. Catherine ascends the throne of the Russian Empire. Afterwards, the empress recalls the army sent to help Prussia, but does not declare war, adhering to the peace agreement of 1762.

In 1762, the Prussian army, taking advantage of the situation, won four major battles against the Austrians and French, completely returning the initiative to Prussia.

In parallel with the fighting in Europe, there was a war going on between the French and the British in North America.
On September 13, 1759, the British won a brilliant victory over the French at Quebec, despite being outnumbered by their enemies. In the same year, the French retreat to Montreal, and the British take Quebec - Canada was lost to France.

Fighting in Asia

In 1757-1761, the war continues between France and England in India. During the fighting, the French suffered a number of crushing defeats. As a result, in 1861, the capital of the French possessions in India surrendered to the onslaught of the British army.
After the victory in India, the British faced a war with the Spaniards in the Philippines. In 1762, the British sent a large fleet to the Philippines and captured Manila, which was defended by a Spanish garrison. And yet, the British did not manage to gain a permanent foothold here. After 1763, British troops gradually began to leave the Philippines.

The reason for the end of the war was the complete exhaustion of the warring parties. On May 22, 1762, Prussia and France signed a peace treaty. On November 24, Prussia and Austria abandoned hostilities.

On February 10, 1763, Great Britain and France signed a peace treaty.
The war ended with the complete victory of the Anglo-Prussian side. As a result, Prussia significantly strengthened its position in Europe and became an important player in the international arena.

France lost control of India and Canada during the war. Russia acquired nothing during the war except military experience. England received India and Canada.

During the fighting, approximately 1.5 million people died, including civilians. Prussian and Austrian sources speak of a figure of 2 million people.

Seven Years' War

The rapid rise of Prussia caused general envy and alarm among the European powers. Austria, having lost Silesia in 1734, longed for revenge. France was alarmed by the rapprochement between Frederick II and England. The Russian Chancellor Bestuzhev considered Prussia the worst and most dangerous enemy of the Russian Empire.

Back in 1755, Bestuzhev was trying to conclude a so-called subsidy agreement with England. England was to be given gold, and Russia was to field 30–40 thousand troops. This “project” was destined to remain a “project”. Bestuzhev, correctly considering the significance of the “Prussian danger” for Russia, at the same time reveals a complete lack of maturity of judgment.

He plans to crush the Prussia of Frederick II with a “corps of 30–40 thousand,” and for money he turns to none other than Prussia’s ally, England. Under such circumstances, in January 1756, Prussia entered into an alliance with England, the response to which was the formation of a tripartite coalition of Austria, France and Russia, joined by Sweden and Saxony.

Austria demanded the return of Silesia, Russia was promised East Prussia (with the right to exchange it from Poland for Courland), Sweden and Saxony were seduced by other Prussian lands: the first by Pomerania, the second by Lusation. Soon almost all German principalities joined this coalition. The soul of the entire coalition was Austria, which fielded the largest army and had the best diplomacy. Austria very cleverly managed to force all its allies, and mainly Russia, to serve its interests.

While the allies were sharing the skin of the unkilled bear, Frederick, surrounded by enemies, decided not to wait for their blows, but to start himself. In August 1756, he was the first to open hostilities, taking advantage of the unpreparedness of the allies, he invaded Saxony, surrounded the Saxon army in the camp at Pirna and forced it to lay down its arms. Saxony immediately fell out of action, and its captured army almost entirely went into Prussian service.

The campaign was announced to the Russian army in October 1756 and during the winter it was supposed to concentrate in Lithuania. Field Marshal Count Apraksin was appointed commander-in-chief, placed in the closest dependence on the Conference, an institution borrowed from the Austrians and which, in Russian conditions, was a deteriorated edition of the notorious “Gofkriegsrat”. The members of the Conference were: Chancellor Bestuzhev, Prince Trubetskoy, Field Marshal Buturlin, the Shuvalov brothers. However, our “Austrophilism” was not limited to this alone, but went much further: the Conference immediately fell entirely under Austrian influence and, commanding an army a thousand miles from St. Petersburg, was guided, it seemed, primarily by observing the interests of the Vienna cabinet.

In 1757, three main theaters were determined, which then existed throughout the entire Seven Years' War - the Franco-Imperial, the main, or Austrian, and the Russian.

Fusilier, chief officer, grenadiers of the Tengin infantry regiment, 1732–1756. Colorized engraving

Frederick opened the campaign by moving at the end of April from different directions - concentrically - into Bohemia. He defeated the Austrian army of Prince Charles of Lorraine near Prague and locked it in Prague. However, the second Austrian army of Down moved to her rescue, defeating Frederick at Kolin (June). Frederick retreated to Saxony, and by the end of the summer his position had become critical. Prussia was surrounded by 300,000 enemies. The king entrusted the defense against Austria to the Duke of Bevern, and he himself hurried to the West. Having bribed the commander-in-chief of the northern French army, the Duke of Richelieu, and secured his inaction, he, after some hesitation caused by bad news from the East, turned to the southern Franco-Imperial army. Frederick II would not have been a Prussian and a German if he had acted only by honest means.

With an army of twenty-one thousand, he utterly defeated 64,000 Franco-Imperial Soubise at Rosbach, and then moved into Silesia, where Bevernsky was meanwhile defeated at Breslau. On December 5, Frederick attacked the Austrians and literally incinerated their army in the famous Battle of Leuthen. This is the most brilliant of all Frederick's campaigns; according to Napoleon, for one Leuthen he deserves to be called a great commander.

The Russian army, operating in the secondary East Prussian theater of war, remained aloof from the main events of the 1757 campaign. Its concentration in Lithuania took the whole winter and spring. There was a large shortage in the troops, which was especially noticeable in officers.

They did not go on the hike with a light heart. We were afraid of the Prussians. Since the time of Peter I and, especially, Anna, the German has been a reserved being for us - of a different, higher order, teacher and boss. The Prussian was just a German to all Germans. “Frederick, they say, beat the Frenchman himself, and the Tsars and even more so - how can we, many sinners, resist him! The nasty Russian habit of always belittling oneself in comparison with a foreigner... After the first skirmish on the border, where three of our dragoon regiments were overthrown by the Prussian hussars, the entire army was seized by “great timidity, cowardice and fear,” which, however, affected the top much more strongly than the bottoms.

By May, the concentration of our army on the Neman ended. There were 89,000 people in it, of which no more than 50-55 thousand were fit for battle - “actually fighting”, the rest were non-combatants of all kinds, or unorganized Kalmyks armed with bows and arrows.

Prussia was defended by the army of Field Marshal Lewald (30,500 regulars and up to 10,000 armed residents). Frederick, busy fighting Austria and France, treated the Russians with disdain:

“Russian barbarians do not deserve to be mentioned here,” he once remarked in one of his letters.

The Russian commander-in-chief depended entirely on the St. Petersburg Conference. He did not have the right to dispose of troops without the formal “approbation” of the cabinet each time, he did not have the right to take the initiative in the event of a change in the situation and had to communicate with St. Petersburg on all sorts of trifles. In the campaign of 1757, the Conference ordered him to maneuver in such a way that it would be “all the same for him to march straight towards Prussia or to the left through the whole of Poland into Silesia.” The goal of the campaign was to capture East Prussia, but Apraksin was not sure until June that part of his army would not be sent to Silesia to strengthen the Austrians.

S. F. Apraksin. Unknown artist

On June 25, Farmer's vanguard captured Memel, which served as the signal for the opening of the campaign. Apraksin marched with the main forces to Verzhbolovo and Gumbinen, sending the vanguard of General Sibilsky - 6,000 horses - to Friedland to act in the rear of the Prussians. The movement of our army was characterized by slowness, which was explained by administrative troubles, the abundance of artillery and the fear of the Prussian troops, about whom there were whole legends. On July 10, the main forces crossed the border, passed Gumbinen on the 15th and occupied Insterburg on the 18th. Sibilsky's cavalry did not live up to the hopes placed on it, just as a hundred and fifty years later - in the same places, the detachment of the Khan of Nakhichevan would not justify them... Lewald was waiting for the Russians in a strong position across the Alla River, near Velau. Having united with the vanguard - Farmer and Sibilsky, Apraksin moved to Allenburg on August 12, deeply bypassing the Prussian position. Having learned about this movement, Lewald hastened to meet the Russians and on August 19 attacked them at Gross-Jägernsdorf, but was repulsed. Levald had 22,000 people in this battle, Apraksin had up to 57,000, of which, however, half did not take part in the matter. The fate of the battle was decided by Rumyantsev, who grabbed the vanguard infantry and marched with it through the forest with bayonets. The Prussians could not withstand this attack. The spoils of victory were 29 guns and 600 prisoners. The Prussians' damage was up to 4000, ours - over 6000. This first victory had the most beneficial effect on the troops, showing them that a Prussian was no worse than a Swede or a Turk in running away from a Russian bayonet. She made the Prussians think too.

After the Battle of Jägernsdorf, the Prussians retreated to Weslau. Apraksin moved after them and on August 25 began to bypass their right flank. Lewald did not accept the fight and retreated. The military council assembled by Apraksin decided, in view of the difficulty of feeding the army, to retreat to Tilsit, where the economic part would be put in order. On August 27, the retreat began, carried out very secretly (the Prussians learned about it only on September 4). During the march, it became clear that due to complete disorder it was impossible to go on the offensive that same fall and it was decided to retreat to Courland. On September 13, they will leave Tilsit, and the Russian military council decided to avoid battle with Lewald’s vanguard, despite all our superiority in strength; “Cowardice and fear,” of course, were no longer in sight, but the notorious “timidity,” apparently, had not completely abandoned our senior leaders. On September 16, the entire army was withdrawn beyond the Neman. The campaign of 1757 ended in vain due to the extraordinary constraint on the actions of the commander-in-chief by cabinet strategists and the disruption of the economic part.

Musketeer headquarters and chief officers of the Life Guards Regiment of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, 1762. Colored engraving

Chief officer and reiter of the Life Guards Cavalry Regiment, 1732–1742. Colorized engraving

Chief officer of the Horse Regiment, 1742–1762. Colorized engraving

The conference demanded an immediate transition to the offensive, as our diplomacy promised the allies. Apraksin refused, was removed from office and put on trial, and died of a stroke without waiting for trial. They treated him unfairly, Apraksin did everything that any boss of average talents and abilities could have done in his place, placed in a truly impossible position and tied hand and foot by the Conference.

Instead of Apraksin, General Farmer was appointed commander-in-chief - an excellent administrator, a caring boss (Suvorov remembered him as a “second father”), but at the same time fussy and indecisive. The farmer began organizing troops and organizing the economic part.

Frederick II, disdainful of the Russians, did not even allow the thought that the Russian army would be able to make a winter campaign. He sent Lewald's entire army to Pomerania against the Swedes, leaving only 6 garrison companies in East Prussia. The farmer knew this, but, not receiving orders, did not move.

Meanwhile, the Conference, in order to refute the reprehensible opinions about the fighting qualities of the Russian troops that were circulating in Europe through the efforts of the Prussian “newspapers”, ordered the Farmer to move to East Prussia at the first snow.

On the first day of January 1758, the columns of Saltykov and Rumyantsev (30,000) crossed the border. On January 11, Koenigsberg was occupied, and then all of East Prussia, converted into the Russian General Government. We acquired a valuable base for further operations and, in fact, achieved our goal of the war. The Prussian population, sworn to Russian citizenship by Apraksin, did not oppose our troops, and the local authorities were favorable towards Russia. Having captured East Prussia, the Farmer wanted to move to Danzig, but was stopped by the Conference, which ordered him to wait for the arrival of the Observation Corps, demonstrate together with the Swedes on Küstrin, and then march with the army to Frankfurt. In anticipation of summer time, the Farmer stationed most of the army at Thorn and Poznan, without particularly caring about maintaining the neutrality of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

On July 2, the army set off for Franfort, as instructed. It consisted of 55,000 fighters. The disorder of the Observation Corps, ignorance of the terrain, food difficulties and constant interference by the Conference led to a waste of time, long stops and counter-marches. All maneuvers were carried out under the cover of Rumyantsev's cavalry of 4000 sabers, whose actions can be called exemplary.

The Military Council decided not to get involved in battle with the Don corps, which warned us in Frankfurt, and to go to Küstrin to contact the Swedes. On August 3, our army approached Küstrin and on the 4th began bombarding it.

Friedrich P. himself hastened to the rescue of the threatened Brandenburg. Having left 40,000 people against the Austrians, he moved with 15,000 to the Oder, united with the Don corps and went down the Oder towards the Russians. The farmer lifted the siege of Küstrin and retreated to Zorndorf on August 11, where he took up a strong position. After Rumyantsev's division was sent to cross the Oder, the Russian army had 42,000 people with 240 guns. The Prussians had 33,000 and 116 guns.

Frederick bypassed the Russian position from the rear and forced our army to give him battle with an inverted front. The bloody Zorndorf battle on August 14 had no tactical consequences. Both armies "broke against each other." Morally, Zorndorf is a Russian victory and a cruel blow to Frederick. Here, as they say, “the scythe found a stone” - and the Prussian king saw that “these people could be killed rather than defeated.”

Here he experienced his first disappointment: the vaunted Prussian infantry, having experienced the Russian bayonet, refused to attack again. The honor of this bloody day belongs to the men-at-arms of Seydlitz and those old regiments of the iron Russian infantry, about which the rush of their avalanches crashed... The Russian army had to rebuild the front already under fire. Its right and left flanks were separated by a ravine. Frederick's flanking maneuver pinned our army to the Mitchell River and turned the main advantage of our Zorndorf position into an extreme disadvantage; the river found itself in the rear. On the part of the Farmer, who had absolutely no control over the battle, not the slightest attempt was made to coordinate the actions of the two disunited masses, and this allowed Frederick to fall first on our right flank, then on our left. In both cases, the Prussian infantry was repulsed and overthrown, but while pursuing it, the Russians became frustrated and came under attack from the Prussian cavalry masses. We had almost no cavalry, only 2700, the rest under Rumyantsev. By the end of the battle, the front of the armies formed a right angle with the original front, the battlefield and the trophies on it were, as it were, divided in half.

Our damage was 19,500 killed and wounded, 3,000 prisoners, 11 banners, 85 guns - 54 percent of the entire army. Out of 9,143 people, only 1,687 remained in the ranks of the Observation Corps.

The Prussians had 10,000 killed and wounded, 1,500 prisoners, 10 banners and 26 guns - up to 35 percent of the total strength. Frederick II set the resilience of the Russians as an example for his own troops, especially the infantry.

By drawing Rumyantsev to him, the Farmer could have resumed the battle with greater chances of success, but he missed this opportunity. Frederick retreated to Silesia - the Farmer set out to capture the heavily fortified Kolberg in Pomerania. He acted indecisively and at the end of October withdrew the army to winter quarters along the Lower Vistula. The campaign of 1758 - a successful winter and unsuccessful summer campaigns - was generally favorable for Russian weapons.

On other fronts, Frederick continued his active defense, acting along internal operational lines. At Hochkirch he was defeated, Daun attacked him at night, but the indecisiveness of Daun, who did not dare to take advantage of his victory, despite the double superiority in forces, rescued the Prussians.

V.V. Farmer. Artist A. P. Antropov

By the opening of the 1759 campaign, the quality of the Prussian army was no longer the same as in previous years. Many military generals and officers, old and experienced soldiers died. Prisoners and defectors had to be placed in the ranks along with untrained recruits. No longer having those forces, Frederick decided to abandon his usual initiative in opening a campaign and wait first for the actions of the allies, in order to then maneuver on their messages. Interested in the short duration of the campaign due to the scarcity of his funds, the Prussian king sought to slow down the start of allied operations, and for this purpose launched cavalry raids along their rear to destroy stores. In that era of store rations for armies and the “five transitional system,” the destruction of stores entailed the disruption of the campaign plan. The first raid, carried out on the Russian rear in Poznan by a small force in February, was generally successful for the Prussians, although it did not cause any particular harm to the Russian army. Rumyantsev vainly pointed out to the Farmer, when occupying the apartments, all the disadvantages and dangers of the cordon location. This even caused their quarrel. In 1759, Rumyantsev did not receive a position in the active army, but was appointed inspector of logistics, from where he was required to join the army by Saltykov. Another raid behind the Austrians in April was much more successful, and the Austrian headquarters was so frightened by it that they abandoned all active actions during the spring and early summer.

Meanwhile, the St. Petersburg Conference, having finally fallen under the influence of Austria, developed a plan of operations for 1759, according to which the Russian army became auxiliary to the Austrian one. It was supposed to be increased to 120,000, of which 90,000 would be sent to join the Tsars, and 30,000 would be left on the Lower Vistula.

At the same time, the commander-in-chief was not at all indicated where exactly to connect with the Austrians and what to be guided by when carrying out operations “up or down the Oder.”

It was not possible to complete the army even to half of what was expected - due to the insistent demands of the Austrians, it was necessary to set out on a campaign before the arrival of reinforcements. At the end of May, the army set out from Bromberg to Poznan and, moving slowly, arrived there only in the 20th of June. Here a rescript of the Conference was received, appointing Count Saltykov as commander-in-chief, the Farmer received one of 3 divisions. Saltykov was ordered to unite with the Austrians at the point where the latter wished, then he was ordered, “without obeying Down, to listen to his advice” - by no means sacrificing the army for the sake of Austrian interests - and, to top it all, not to engage in battle with superior forces.

Frederick II, confident in Down’s passivity, transferred 30,000 from the “Austrian” front to the “Russian” - and decided to defeat the Russians before uniting them with the Austrians. The Prussians acted sluggishly and missed an opportunity to defeat the Russian army piecemeal.

Not embarrassed by the presence of this strong enemy mass on his left flank, Saltykov moved on July 6 from Poznan in a southerly direction - to Karolat and Crossen to join the Austrians there. He had up to 40,000 combat troops under his command. The Russian army brilliantly carried out an extremely risky and courageous flank march, and Saltykov took measures in case the army was cut off from its base - Poznan.

P. S. Saltykov. Engraving

The Prussians hurried after Saltykov to get ahead of him at Crossen. On July 12, in the battle of Palzig, they were defeated and thrown back beyond the Oder - under the walls of the Krossen fortress. In the Battle of Palzig, 40,000 Russians with 186 guns fought with 28,000 Prussians. Against the linear battle formation of the latter, Saltykov used echeloning in depth and playing with reserves, which gave us victory, which, unfortunately, was not brought about by a sufficiently energetic pursuit of the enemy to the complete destruction of the Prussians.

Our damage was 894 killed, 3,897 wounded. The Prussians lost 9,000 people: 7,500 who dropped out in battle and 1,500 deserted. In fact, their damage was much more significant, and it can be assumed to be no less than 12,000; the killed Prussians alone were buried by the Russians, 4,228 bodies. 600 prisoners, 7 banners and standards, 14 guns were taken.

All this time, Down was inactive. The Austrian commander-in-chief based his plans on Russian blood. Fearing to enter into battle with Frederick, despite his double superiority in strength, Daun sought to bring the Russians under the first fire and pull them towards him - into the depths of Silesia. But Saltykov, who managed to “see through” his Austrian colleague, did not succumb to this “stratagem”, but decided after the Palzig victory to move on Frankfurt and threaten Berlin.

This movement by Saltykov alarmed both Friedrich and Daun equally. The Prussian king feared for his capital; the Austrian commander-in-chief did not want a victory won by the Russians alone without the participation of the Austrians (which could have important political consequences). Therefore, while Frederick concentrated his army in the Berlin region, Daun, “carefully guarding” the weak Prussian barrier left against him, moved Laudon’s corps towards Frankfurt, ordering him to warn the Russians there and profit from the indemnity. This cunning calculation did not come true: “Franfort” was already occupied by the Russians on July 19.

Having captured Frankfurt, Saltykov intended to move Rumyantsev with his cavalry to Berlin, but the appearance of Frederick there forced him to abandon this plan. Connected with Loudon, he had 58,000 men, with whom he took a strong position at Kunersdorf.

Against Frederick’s 50,000 Prussians in the Berlin region, three masses of allies were thus concentrated: from the east, 58,000 soldiers of Saltykov, 80 versts from Berlin; from the south 65,000 Down, 150 versts; from the west, 30,000 imperials, 100 versts away, Frederick decided to get out of this intolerable situation by attacking with all his forces the most dangerous enemy, the enemy who had most advanced, the most brave and skillful, and who, moreover, did not have the custom of evading battle, in short - the Russians.

Reitar Horse Regiment, 1742–1762 Colorized engraving

On August 1, he attacked Saltykov and in the fierce battle that took place at the Kunersdorf position - the famous “Battle of Franfort” - he was completely defeated, losing two-thirds of his army and all the artillery. Frederick intended to bypass the Russian army from the rear, as at Zorndorf, but Saltykov was not a Farmer: he immediately turned the front around. The Russian army was highly echeloned in depth on a relatively narrow front. Frederick shot down the first two lines, capturing up to 70 guns, but his attack floundered, and Seydlitz’s cavalry, which untimely rushed at the undisturbed Russian infantry, was killed. Having launched a crushing counter-offensive to the front and flank, the Russians overthrew Frederick’s army, and Rumyantsev’s cavalry completely finished off the Prussians, who fled wherever they could. Of the 48,000 people, the king was unable to gather even a tenth immediately after the battle! The Prussians show their final damage at 20,000 in the battle itself and over 2,000 deserters during flight. In fact, their loss should be at least 30,000. We buried 7,627 Prussian corpses on the spot, took over 4,500 prisoners, 29 banners and standards, and all 172 guns that were in the Prussian army. Russian damage - up to 13,500 people (a third of the army): 2,614 killed, 10,863 wounded. About 2,500 people died in Laudon's Austrian corps. In total, the Allies lost 16,000 people. Frederick II’s despair is best expressed in his letter to one of his childhood friends, written the next day: “From an army of 48,000, I don’t have even 3,000 left at this moment. Everything is running away, and I no longer have power over the army... In Berlin They will do well if they think about their safety. A cruel misfortune, I will not survive it. The consequences of the battle will be even worse than the battle itself: I have no more means, and, to tell the truth, I consider everything lost. I will not survive the loss of my fatherland. Do not see you again". The pursuit was short; After the battle, Saltykov had no more than 23,000 people left, and he could not reap the fruits of his brilliant victory.

Daun, consumed by envy of Saltykov, did nothing on his part to relieve him, and with idle “advice” he only annoyed the Russian commander-in-chief.

Frederick II came to his senses after Kunersdorf, gave up thoughts of suicide and again accepted the title of commander-in-chief (which he resigned on the evening of the “Battle of Franfort”); On August 18, Frederick already had 33,000 people near Berlin and could calmly look to the future. Down's inaction saved Prussia.

The Austrian commander-in-chief persuaded Saltykov to move to Silesia for a joint attack on Berlin, but one raid by the Prussian hussars to the rear was enough for Daun’s hasty retreat to his original position... He did not prepare the promised allowance for the Russians.

The indignant Saltykov decided to act on his own and headed towards the Glogau fortress, but Friedrich, having foreseen his intention, moved parallel to Saltykov in order to warn him. Both had 24,000 soldiers, and Saltykov decided not to get involved in battle this time: he considered it inappropriate to risk these troops 500 miles from his base. Frederick, remembering Kunersdorf, did not insist on battle. On September 14, the opponents dispersed, and on the 19th Saltykov retreated to winter quarters near the Warta River. The winner at Kunersdorf, who received the field marshal's baton, had the civil courage to prefer the interests of Russia to the interests of Austria and reject the demand of the Conference, which insisted on wintering in Silesia together with the Austrians and sending 20-30 thousand Russian infantry to the Loudoun corps. Having already arrived at Warta, Saltykov, at the insistence of the Austrians, showed that he was returning to Prussia. By this he saved the valiant Daun and his army of eighty thousand from the Prussian offensive that the Tsar's commander imagined.

Officer and sergeant of the life company, 1742–1762. Colorized engraving

The 1759 campaign could decide the fate of the Seven Years' War, and with it the fate of Prussia. Fortunately for Frederick, in addition to the Russians, he also had Austrians as opponents.

In the campaign of 1760, Saltykov intended to capture Danzig, Kolberg and Pomerania, and from there act on Berlin. But the “home-grown Austrians” at their Conference decided otherwise and again sent the Russian army “to run errands” for the Austrians in Silesia - the winners at Kunersdorf were all compared to the losers at Leuthen! At the same time, Saltykov was instructed to “make an attempt” to master Kohlberg - to act in two diametrically opposed operational directions. Saltykov's position was further complicated by the fact that the Austrians did not inform him of either Frederick's movements or their own. At the end of June, Saltykov, with 60,000 and a supply of provisions for 2 months, set out from Poznan and slowly moved towards Breslau, where, in the meantime, the Austrians of Laudon were heading. However, the Prussians forced Laudon to retreat from Breslau, and Frederick II, who arrived in Silesia, defeated him (August 4) at Liegnitz. Frederick II with 30,000 arrived from Saxony by forced march, covering 280 versts in 5 days (the army march was 56 versts). The Austrians demanded the transfer of Chernyshev's corps to the left bank of the Oder - into the jaws of the enemy, but Saltykov opposed this and retreated to Gernstadt, where the army stood until September 2. At the end of August, Saltykov fell dangerously ill and surrendered his command to Farmer, who first tried to besiege Glogau, and then on September 10 withdrew the army to Crossen, deciding to act according to circumstances. The following fact perfectly characterizes the Farmer. Laudon asked for his help in the proposed siege of Glogau.

The farmer, who did not take a step without the permission of the Conference, notified St. Petersburg about this. While communications and relationships were being written back and forth 1,500 miles away, Laudon changed his mind and decided to lay siege not to Glogau, but to Kempen, which he informed the Farmer about. In the meantime, a rescript from the Conference was issued, allowing movement to Glogau. The farmer, an overly well-disciplined commander, moved to Glogau, despite the fact that this movement, due to the changed situation, lost all meaning. Walking towards the fortress, the Farmer saw that it was impossible to take it without siege artillery. Chernyshev's corps with Totleben's cavalry and Krasnoshchekov's Cossacks, a total of 23,000, half cavalry, was sent on a raid on Berlin.

Officer of the Prince William's Musketeer Regiment, 1762. Colorized engraving

Guards Grenadier Officer. Engraving

Oboist, flute player and drummer of the Musketeer Regiment, 1756–1761. Colorized engraving

Capture of the Kolberg fortress during the Seven Years' War. Artist A. Kotzebue

Flute player of the Life Guards Preobrazhensky Regiment, 1763–1786. Engraving

On September 23, Totleben attacked Berlin, but was repulsed, and on the 28th Berlin surrendered. In addition to 23,000 Russians, 14,000 Lassi Austrians took part in the raid on Berlin. The capital was defended by 14,000 Prussians, of whom 4,000 were taken prisoner. The mint and arsenal were destroyed and indemnities were taken. The Prussian “newspapers”, who, as we have seen, wrote all sorts of libels and fables about Russia and the Russian army, have been duly flogged. This event hardly made them special Russophiles, but it is one of the most comforting episodes in our history. After staying in the enemy capital for four days, Chernyshev and Totleben left there as Frederick approached. The raid had no important results.

When it became clear that any productive cooperation with the Austrians was impossible, the Conference returned to Saltykov’s original plan and ordered the Farmer to take possession of Kolberg in Pomerania. Busy organizing a raid on Berlin, Farmer moved the Olitz division to Kolberg. The new commander-in-chief, Field Marshal Buturlin, who arrived in the army (Saltykov was still ill), lifted the siege of Kolberg due to the late season and in October took the entire army to winter quarters along the Lower Vistula. The campaign of 1760 did not bring results...

In 1761, following the example of a number of past campaigns, the Russian army was moved to Silesia to join the Austrians.

From Thorn she went her usual way to Poznan and Breslau, but at this last point she was forestalled by Frederick. Passing by Breslav, Buturlin contacted Loudon. The entire campaign took place in marches and maneuvers. On the night of August 29, Buturlin decided to attack Frederick near Hochkirchen, but the Prussian king, not relying on his own strength, avoided the battle. In September, Frederick II moved towards messages from the Austrians, but the Russians, quickly uniting with the latter, prevented him and forced Frederick to retreat to the fortified camp at Bunzelwitz. Then Buturlin, having reinforced Laudon with Chernyshev’s corps, retreated to Pomerania. On September 21, Loudon took Schweidnitz by storm, and the Russians especially distinguished themselves, and soon after that both sides went into winter quarters. During the assault on Schweidnitz, 2 Russian battalions were the first to ascend the ramparts, then opened the gates to the Austrians and stood in perfect order with a gun at their feet on the ramparts, while at their feet the Austrians indulged in revelry and robbery. The Allies lost 1,400 people. 2600 Prussians surrendered with 240 guns, 1400 were killed.

Rumyantsev's corps, operating separately from the main army, approached Kolberg on August 5 and besieged it. The fortress turned out to be strong, and the siege, carried out with the help of the fleet, lasted four months, accompanied at the same time by actions against Prussian partisans in the rear of the siege corps. Only the unyielding energy of Rumyantsev made it possible to bring the siege to an end - three times the convened military council spoke out in favor of retreat. Finally, on December 5, Kolberg surrendered, 5,000 prisoners, 20 banners, 173 guns were taken, and this was the last feat of the Russian army in the Seven Years' War.

The report of the surrender of Kolberg found Empress Elizabeth on her deathbed... Emperor Peter III, an ardent admirer of Frederick, who ascended the throne, immediately stopped hostilities with Prussia, returned to it all the conquered regions (East Prussia was under Russian citizenship for 4 years) and ordered Chernyshev’s corps to be with Prussian army. During the campaign of 1762 in the spring, Chernyshev’s corps raided Bohemia and regularly cut down yesterday’s Austrian allies, for whom the Russians at all times - and then especially - had contempt. When, at the beginning of July, Chernyshev received orders to return to Russia, where a coup was taking place at that time, Frederick begged him to stay for another “three days” - until the battle, which he fought on July 10 at Burkersdorf. The Russians did not participate in this battle, but their presence alone greatly frightened the Austrians, who still knew nothing about the events in St. Petersburg.

The Seven Years' War, which glorified Russian weapons, ended so sadly and unexpectedly for us.

Officer of Prince William's Grenadier Regiment, 1762. Colorized engraving

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