Eastern direction of the foreign policy of Alexander I. Foreign policy of Alexander I at the beginning of the 19th century
In the initial period of the reign of Alexander I, the eastern foreign policy direction was of great importance, where Russia traditionally had difficult relations with the Ottoman Empire and Persia (Iran).
The key issue here can be considered the problem of control over the Black Sea straits (Bosphorus, Dardanelles) and the division of spheres of influence into Balkan Peninsula, belonging to Turkey, but having a Slavic and predominantly Orthodox population. The Caucasus, where Russia sought to establish its power, was also of fundamental economic and military-strategic importance.
In accordance with the Treaty of St. George (1783) , Eastern Georgia, fearing a Persian and Turkish invasion, came under the protection of Russia. At the end of 1800, the last Georgian king from the Bagratid dynasty abdicated in favor of the Russian sovereign. During 1801–1804 all of Georgia voluntarily joined the Russian Empire, and a Russian administration was created on its territory, headed by a governor appointed in St. Petersburg.
Russian expansion in Transcaucasia aroused the indignation of the Persian Shah.
In 1804, the Russian-Iranian war began, which lasted until 1813. The Russian army had a huge superiority over the poorly armed and poorly organized Persian troops. As a result, on October 12, 1813, a peace treaty was signed in the village of Gulistan, according to which Iran recognized not only Georgia, but also Dagestan and Northern Azerbaijan as part of the Russian Empire, and in addition, Russia received the exclusive right to keep a navy in the Caspian Sea .
In 1806, relying on the support of France, the Turkish Sultan Selim III closed the Black Sea straits for Russian ships. He also replaced the Russian-friendly rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia (Ypsilanti and Muruzi), which was a direct violation of existing Russian-Turkish agreements. The war, which began in December 1806, continued until 1812. Among the Russian commanders who took part in it, it should be noted General I.I. Michelson and Vice Admiral D.N. Sinyavin, who defeated the Turkish fleet in the Battle of Athos (June 19, 1807). In the spring of 1811 General M.I. Kutuzov, who in October 1811 won a major battle at Ruschuk. May 28, 1812 M.I. Kutuzov signed Bucharest Peace , according to which Bessarabia became part of Russia (the border was established along the Prut River), and Moldova, Wallachia and Serbia received autonomy as part of Ottoman Empire. This treaty was signed a few days before Napoleon's invasion of Russia and ensured Turkey's neutrality in the upcoming Patriotic War of 1812.
The main foreign policy interests of Russia during the entire reign of Alexander I (1801–1825) were concentrated towards the west .
At the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. France, Great Britain and Austria began another redistribution of Europe, which went down in history under the name "Napoleonic Wars". Of course, the Russian Empire, which has the status of a great European power and is constantly striving to strengthen its influence on the continent, could not but take part in this process.
At first, the government of Alexander I tried to take the position of an arbiter in European affairs, and "become desirable for everyone, without assuming any obligations in relation to anyone." Already in March - June 1801, steps were taken to normalize relations with Great Britain, in September 1801 peaceful agreement with France. There was a temporary lull in Europe that lasted until the spring of 1805, when the third anti-Napoleonic coalition was created(Russia, Great Britain, Austria). Napoleon acted decisively.
In October 1805 he defeated Austria and occupied Vienna.
On November 20, 1805, a major battle took place near Austerlitz, in which the allied Russian-Austrian troops, led by M.I. Kutuzov, were defeated. This defeat forced Alexander I to withdraw his army from Europe and in June 1806 sign an unfavorable peace with France.
However, already at the end of 1806, a new (fourth) anti-Napoleonic coalition was formed, in which Prussia and Sweden took the place of Austria. The French emperor attacked the allies in the autumn of 1806. In October, he occupied Berlin, defeating the Prussian army near Jena. Here he announced the establishment of a continental blockade of England.
At the beginning of 1807, a major battle took place near Preussisch-Eylau between the French and the Russian army, commanded by General L.L. Bennigsen. Napoleon failed to win a decisive victory then, but already on June 2 of the same year in the battle of Friedland, Bennigsen was defeated and was forced to retreat behind the Neman.
On June 25, 1807, Alexander I and Napoleon met in Tilsit, as a result of which the emperors not only signed peace, but also signed an alliance treaty. The terms of this peace were extremely disadvantageous and even insulting for Russia.
Alexander I had to recognize all the French conquests in Europe and approve the creation of the Duchy of Warsaw (meanwhile, the revival of Polish statehood was contrary to the interests of Russia).
Alexander also pledged to break off relations with Great Britain and join the continental blockade. This condition violated the economic and political sovereignty of the Russian Empire.
The union of Alexander and Napoleon had and positive consequences for Russia - France approved the expansionist plans of the Russian Empire in relation to northern Europe.
From February 1808 to August 1809 the last Russian-Swedish war in history took place, ending with the signing of the Friedrichsham Peace Treaty. Under its terms, Finland (which received wide autonomy) and the Åland Islands became part of Russia, and Sweden pledged to join the continental blockade.
Obviously, the Tilsit Peace Treaty did not resolve, but only exacerbated the contradictions between France and Russia. The situation remained tense even after the meeting of the two emperors in Erfrut (September–October 1808). In 1811, the Russian Empire actually withdrew from the continental blockade, increased its army, looked for allies, and prepared for an attack on the Duchy of Warsaw.
Patriotic War of 1812
Causes
The Treaty of Tilsit (1807) did not resolve, but only exacerbated the contradictions between France and Russia. A big war was coming. Its main reasons can be considered: 1) in 1812, Russia and Great Britain remained the last serious obstacles to Napoleon's path to world hegemony. The French emperor rightly considered economically developed bourgeois England to be his main opponent, but in order to defeat her, he first needed to seize and strengthen leadership on the continent, as well as establish a strong alliance with Russia on favorable terms for the French Empire; 2) Russia not only did not want to follow in the wake of French policy, but also had its own hegemonic ambitions, if not global, then at least European. There is evidence indicating that Alexander I in 1811 - early 1812. actively preparing for an attack on France. However, Napoleon was ahead of him; 3) diplomatic contradictions between France and Russia were concentrated around the following (insoluble by peaceful means) problems: the creation of the Duchy of Warsaw (1807) threatened the national security of Russia, which was not interested in the revival of Polish statehood; the capture by France of the Duchy of Oldenburg (1810), with the ruling dynasty of which Alexander I had family ties; France's resistance to Russia's desire to establish control over the Black Sea straits (Bosporus and Dardanelles); 4) at the beginning of the XIX century. Great Britain was the most important trading partner of the Russian Empire, so joining the continental blockade was a real economic disaster. From 1808 to 1812 Russian foreign trade turnover decreased by 45%. The restriction of the state sovereignty of Russia, in fact, was a ban on official diplomatic relations with England; 5) Russian society opposed to an alliance with France. Napoleon was called "usurper", "soldafon" and even "Antichrist" here. Personal relations between the emperors also left much to be desired. They especially went wrong in 1810 after Alexander I refused to agree to the marriage of his sister Anna with Napoleon.
Both countries were actively preparing for war, making huge diplomatic efforts in search of allies. France managed to put together a powerful coalition. It included Austria, Prussia, the Netherlands, the Duchy of Warsaw, most of the German principalities and Italian states. However, as it turned out later, only the Poles joined the union voluntarily, while the rest were only looking for a suitable opportunity to betray Napoleon. In turn, Russia could ensure the neutrality of Sweden and Turkey, thereby protecting its flanks.
On August 15, 1811, at the solemn reception of the diplomatic corps, the French emperor declared to Prince A.B. Kurakin: "I don't know if I'll beat you, but we'll fight!"
Foreign policy Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century
The foreign policy of Alexander I contributed to the solution of the most important state tasks: it made it possible to provide protection state borders, expand the territory of the country through new acquisitions, increase the international prestige of the empire.
In the foreign policy of Russia 1801-1825. a number of stages can be distinguished:
- 1801-1812 (before Patriotic War with Napoleon)
- Patriotic War of 1812
- 1813 -1815 (the time of foreign campaigns of the Russian army, the completion of the defeat of Napoleonic France).
The main directions of Russia's foreign policy in the first quarter of the nineteenth century. became: EASTERN - the purpose of which was to strengthen positions in the Transcaucasus, the Black Sea and the Balkans and WESTERN (European) - suggesting the active participation of Russia in European affairs and anti-Napoleonic coalitions.
WESTERN DIRECTION. Russia's activity in this direction was dictated by the international situation that had developed in Europe as a result of the confrontation between the two leading capitalist powers - England and France. Almost all issues of foreign policy were resolved taking into account the increased superiority of France, which claimed political and economic dominance in Europe. In 1801-1812. Russia pursued a policy of maneuvering between France and England, turning into a kind of arbiter in European affairs. In 1801, allied treaties between Russia and these powers were signed, which made it possible to temporarily smooth out the confrontation that had arisen. The peace in Europe that had been established since 1802 (the Peace of Amiens, the treaty between England and France) was extremely short-lived. The aggressive policy of France resulted in a period of wars on the territory of many countries - Holland, Italy, Switzerland and the German states that became part of the French empire. In May 1803, Napoleon declared war on England, and in 1804 he proclaimed himself French emperor and began to claim not only European, but also world domination. Russia abandoned its neutrality and became an active member of the anti-French coalitions (1805-1807). In April 1805 a third coalition was formed. It included: England, Russia, Austria, Sweden, the Kingdom of Naples. In the Battle of Austerlitz (December 1805), the Allies were defeated by the French army. The coalition broke up. In 1806, a new, fourth coalition was created (England, Prussia, Sweden, Russia), but it did not last long. Napoleon took Berlin, Prussia capitulated. The Russian army lost the battle near Friedland (a territory in East Prussia, now the Kaliningrad region). In June 1807, this union also broke up. France and Russia signed the Treaty of Tilsit, under which Russia agreed to the creation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw (in the Polish territories torn away from Prussia) under the protectorate of France. This territory later became a springboard for the French attack on Russia. In addition, Russia was forced to join the continental blockade of England (not economically beneficial for her). Russia's unwillingness to comply with the conditions of the continental blockade was a few years later one of the reasons for the Patriotic War of 1812. The conclusion of peace with France allowed Russia to intensify operations in the eastern and northern directions. Simultaneously with the peace treaty, an alliance between Russia and France was signed. Russia entered the war with England, but did not take part in hostilities against her. She was busy solving the Eastern question.
EAST DIRECTION. Active actions of Russia in the Middle East, on the one hand, were stimulated by the increased attention of the Western European powers to this region, on the other hand, they were conditioned by the desire of the authorities to develop the south of Russia and the desire to secure the southern borders. In addition, the peoples of Transcaucasia were subjected to constant, devastating raids from the Ottoman Empire and Iran and sought to obtain a reliable ally in the person of Russia. Back in 1801-1804, Eastern and Western Georgia (Mengria, Guria and Imeretia) became part of Russia. The administration of these territories began to be carried out by the royal governor. The expansion of Russia's possessions in Transcaucasia led to a clash with Iran and Turkey.
RUSSIAN-IRANIAN WAR (1804-1813)
began after Russia rejected the ultimatum of Persia on the withdrawal of Russian troops from Transcaucasia. The Peace of Gulistan (1813), which ended the war, gave Russia the right to keep a navy in the Caspian Sea. The lands of several Transcaucasian provinces and khanates were assigned to it. These events led to the end of the first stage of the accession of the Caucasus to Russia.
RUSSIAN-TURKISH WAR (1806-1812) was caused by the desire of Turkey to return the former possessions in the Northern Black Sea region and the Caucasus. In October 1806, Russian troops occupied Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1807, the Russian squadron (under command. D. I. Senyavin) defeated the Ottoman fleet. In 1811, the main forces of the Ottoman army on the Danube were defeated (commander of the Danube army - M. I. Kutuzov). In May 1812, the Treaty of Bucharest was signed. 
Russia ceded Moldova, which received the status of the Bessarabia region, Serbia was granted autonomy, the western part of Moldova beyond the river. The Prut remained with Turkey (Principality of Moldavia). In addition, Russia acquired significant territories on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus and the right to patronize Christian peoples - subjects of Turkey. In 1813, Turkish troops invaded Serbia. Turkey demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops from Georgia, Mingrelia, Abkhazia. In 1816, under pressure from Russia, the Turkish-Serbian peace treaty was concluded, according to which Turkey recognized the independence of Serbia. In 1822, Turkey again violated the Russian-Turkish agreement: it sent troops into Moldavia and Wallachia, closed the Black Sea straits for Russian merchant ships. England and France supported the Ottoman Empire. In February - April 1825, at the St. Petersburg Conference with the participation of Austria, Prussia, France and Russia, Russia proposed to grant autonomy to Greece, but was refused and began to prepare for a new war with Turkey, not relying on the resolution of the Greek issue by diplomatic means.
NORTH DIRECTION. In 1808-1809. took place RUSSIAN-SWEDISH war. Russia sought to establish control over the Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Bothnia, to strengthen the security of St. Petersburg. In 1808, Russian troops entered the territory of Finland (commander M. B. Barclay - de - Tolly). In September 1809 Peace of Friedrichsham was signed. Finland ceded to Russia (with the rights of the Grand Duchy). The Russian emperor received the title of Grand Duke of Finland. A governor-general was appointed to govern Finland. Sweden joined the continental blockade of England. Russian-Swedish trade was restored. Thus, in 1801-1812, Russia was unable to achieve success in the West (in the fight against France), but won a number of victories in other foreign policy areas and expanded its territory through new acquisitions.
The foreign policy of Alexander I contributed to the solution of the most important state tasks: it made it possible to protect state borders and expand the country's territory through new territories, and increased the international prestige of the empire.
INTERNATIONAL WAR OF 1812
The Patriotic War of 1812 should be singled out as a special stage in Russia's foreign policy activity. The war was caused by the aggravation of relations between Russia and France. The main reasons for the war were: Russia's participation in the continental blockade of England (by 1812, Russia had practically ceased to fulfill the conditions of the blockade); French hegemony in Europe as the main source of military danger.
The film "The Unknown War of 1812" series 1
The Congress of Vienna ended hostilities. All European states, except Turkey, participated in it. Congress decisions restored order and satisfied the territorial claims of the victorious countries. France lost all the territories conquered during the Napoleonic Wars. Russia, Austria and Prussia divided the Duchy of Warsaw and announced the creation of the Holy Alliance - the union of the three emperors. The purpose of the union was to ensure the inviolability of the decisions of the Congress of Vienna and the suppression of any revolutionary and national movement in Europe. In 1815, France joined the union and a number of European states. The decisive role played by Russia in the fight against Napoleonic France significantly increased its international prestige. For a long time it became one of the most influential states in Europe and throughout the world.
Lesson Objectives:
- to acquaint students with the main directions and events of Russia's foreign policy under Alexander I;
- to cultivate a sense of patriotism, a sense of pride in the achievements of previous generations of our country;
- develop skills in working with a multimedia projector, documents, additional material;
- to consolidate the ability to highlight the general, most importantly, to systematize knowledge, to speak correctly and competently, to work with a map;
- develop students' skills to correlate illustrated, poetic material with ongoing events;
- teach project preparation skills.
Lesson type:
studying the material with the help of project protection.Equipment:
map “Territory of the Russian Empire at the end of the 18th – beginning of the 19th centuries”, paintings, quotes, documents, additional material, cards, textbook: history of the state and peoples of Russia (A.A. Danilov, L.G. Kosulina) paragraph No. 3.Lesson plan:
During the classes:
I. Repetition of the studied material.
1. Slide number 1 photo of Alexander I.Raised under the drum
Our dashing king was a captain:
Under Austerlitz he fled,
In the twelfth year he trembled. /A.S.Pushkin/
Describe Alexander I
2. Working with concepts:
ministries
decree on free cultivators
State Council
Committee of Ministers
3. Working with dates:
(folder of schemes of the IX-XIX centuries)Domestic politics |
Foreign policy |
1796-1801 reign of Paul I |
1801 entry of Georgia |
1804-1813 Russo-Iranian War |
|
1801formation of the Secret Committee |
1805 battle of Austerlitz |
1801-1825 reign of Alexander |
1807 Peace of Tilsit |
1802 ministerial reform |
1808 second meeting of Alexander I and Napoleon I in Erfurt |
1803 decree on free cultivators |
1808-1809 Russo-Swedish War |
1810 formation of the Council of State |
1806-1812 Russian-Turkish war |
II.
Today in the lesson we will consider the foreign policy of Alexander I. Within the framework of this question, 3 main directions are revealed: eastern, western, northern.
Slide 2 When working on a project prepared by Yegor Solodov, you need to reveal the main directions of Russia's foreign policy at the beginning of the 19th century.
Main directions.Eastern Direction - the struggle of Russia and France for leadership in Europe
Western direction - the accession of Transcaucasia to Russia
North direction - the struggle with Sweden for leadership in the Balkans
Slide 4 The main events of the eastern direction
Entry of Georgia (teacher's story)In 1798, the Georgian Tsar George XII turned to the Russian Emperor with a request for patronage on the condition of limiting the prerogatives of the Georgian Tsar in foreign and domestic policy.
On September 12, 1801, the Manifesto of Alexander I was promulgated: "The royal dynasty of Georgia (Bagratids) was deprived of the throne; the administration of Kakheti and Kartli passed to Russian governors; tsarist administration was introduced in Eastern Georgia.
In 1803-1804. Russia, on the same terms, included the rest of Georgia - Mengrelia, Guria and Imereti.
In 1814, the construction of the Georgian Military Road was completed, which connected the Transcaucasus with European Russia, and in this regard was of great strategic and economic importance.
The accession of Georgia was of great political, economic and cultural significance - both for Georgia itself and for Russia.
Tell us about the Russian-Iranian war of 1804-1813.(Message No. 1, Ents. p. 524).
Russian generals (notebook entry).Ivan Vasilievich Gudovich.
Alexander Petrovich Tormasov.
Pyotr Stepanovich Kotlyarevsky.
slide 9-10
Tell us about the Russian-Turkish war of 1806-1812.(Report No. 2, Enz. pp. 530-531).
slide 11 – 12
Personality in history (notebook entry).Ivan Ivanovich Michelson.
Dmitry Nikolaevich Senyavin.
Mikhail Fedotovich Kamensky.
Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov.
Selim III, Mahmud II.
Slide 14 - 19
Tell about the Russian-Prussian-French war of 1805-1807. (Report #3, Enc. pp. 525-526).Slide 20 - 21
What do you know about the Russian-Swedish war of 1808-1809? (Report No. 4, Enz. pp. 536-537). war heroes (notebook entry).Fyodor Fedotovich Buksgevden.
Pyotr Ivanovich Bagration.
Mikhail Bogdanovich Baklay de Tolly.
Yakov Petrovich Kulnev.
4. Working with the map:
Show on the map the territories that became part of the Russian Empire at the beginning of the 19th century: Finland, Bessarabia, Georgia, the Kingdom of Poland.
5. Summary of the lesson:
Thus, the results of the foreign policy of Alexander I by the beginning of the war of 1812 were extremely contradictory. Significant progress has been made in the East and North directions. In the wars with France, Russia was unable to resist the Napoleonic army, but it did not suffer crushing defeats either.
Consolidation of the studied material: card work.
№ 119 – 2 3 5 6 8.
No. 120 - 1801 Georgia.
No. 121 - 1809 Finland.
No. 122 - 1812 Bessarabia.
Card 119
. Continental blockade, which resulted in Russia's participation in the continental blockade.1. War with Finland.
2. The rupture of trade relations with England.
3. War with Sweden.
4. Hike to India.
5. The fall of the ruble.
6. Losses in the trade in bread.
7. Loss of independence.
8. Customs war with France.
9. Dismemberment of Russia.
10. War with Turkey.
Card 120
Since ancient times... the kingdom, oppressed by neighbors of other religions, has exhausted its forces by incessant fighting for its own defense, feeling the inevitable consequences of war almost always unfortunate. Added to this were disagreements in the royal house, threatening to complete the fall of this kingdom, reviving civil war in it. Tsar Georgy Iraklievich, seeing the approaching end of his days, the noble ranks and the people themselves ... now resorted to our protection, and not foreseeing any other salvation from final death and subjugation to their enemies, asked through sent plenipotentiaries for the acceptance of areas ... the kingdom subject to direct allegiance to the imperial All-Russian throne ...
From Paul's manifesto
Card 121
. The accession of new territories to the Russian Empire, the accession of which territories is stated in the document.His Majesty the King ... both for himself and for the successors of his throne and kingdom ... renounces irrevocably and forever in favor of His Majesty the Emperor of All Russia and the successors to his throne in the Russian Empire from all his rights and claims to the provinces below this designated, conquered by the weapons of His Imperial Majesty in the current war from the power ... namely: in the provinces of Kimmenegard, Niland and Tavastgus, Abov and Bierneborg with the islands of Aland, Savolak and Karel, Bazov, Uleaborg and part of western Botnia to the Torneo River, as it will be decided in the next article on assigning boundaries...
Friedrichsham Peace Treaty
Card 122
. The annexation of new territories to the Russian Empire, the annexation of which territories is mentioned in the documents.The first article of the preliminary points, already signed in advance, decided that the Prut River from its entrance ... to its connection with the Danube ... and the left bank of the Danube from this connection to the mouth of the Chilia and to the sea, will constitute the border of both empires, for which this mouth will be common ... As a result of the aforementioned article, the brilliant Ottoman Porta cedes and gives to the Russian imperial court the lands lying on the left bank of the Prut, with fortresses, towns, villages and dwellings located there, while the middle of the Prut River will be the border between both high empires.
From the Bucharest treatise.
Answers to cards
№ 119 – 2 3 5 6 8.
No. 120 - 1801 Georgia.
No. 121 - 1809 Finland.
No. 122 - 1812 Bessarabia.
Homework:
characterize the great Russian generals and commanders.1. Ivan Vasilyevich GudovichIvan Vasilyevich Gudovich,
count ((1741 - January 1820, Olgopol, now the Bershad district of the Vinnitsa region)) - Russian field marshal general. From a Ukrainian noble family. In July 1800, for criticizing the Prussian order, planted in the army by Paul I, he was dismissed. In 1806 he was returned to the service and appointed commander-in-chief of the troops in Georgia and Dagestan, took vigorous measures to stop the plague in the Caucasus. In the Russian-Turkish war of 1806-1812, he defeated the Turkish troops of Seraskir Yusuf Pasha at the Gumry fortress on the Arpachay River (6/18/1807), but after the unsuccessful assault on Erivan (11/17/1808) he withdrew troops to Georgia. A serious illness (with the loss of an eye) forced Gudovich to leave the Caucasus. From 1809 Gudovich was commander-in-chief in Moscow, a member of the Permanent Council (since 1810 a member of the State Council), and a senator. Retired from 1812. Conquered Khadzhibey (1789), Anapa (1791) and Dagestan. Participated in the conquest of the Baku, Sheki and Derbent khanates. During the Russian-Turkish war of 1806-1812, the troops under his command won a major victory at Arpachai (1807), but after an unsuccessful assault on the fortress of Erivan (1808) they were forced to retreat to Georgia. In 1809-1812 he was a member of the State Council, a senator.2. Alexander Petrovich Tormasov
- Under Tsar Paul I in 1799 he was expelled from service, but in 1800 he was again appointed commander of the Life Guards. horse regiment. In 1803 he was appointed governor-general of Kyiv, in 1807 - of Riga, in 1808 - commander-in-chief in Georgia and on the Caucasian line. Arriving at his post in February 1809, Tormasov found things in a difficult situation: Turkey and Persia were preparing to invade our borders, Imereti and Abkhazia were in revolt, Dagestan was close to that, and the commander-in-chief had no more than 42 thousand soldiers at his disposal. troops. Tormasov discovered tireless energy, the ability to direct the actions of his troops and the ability to choose performers. Thanks to this, success gradually leaned towards Russia. Having taken the fortress of Poti and thereby eliminating the influence of the Turks on Abkhazia and Imeretia, Tormasov brought peace to them; in Dagestan, attempts to revolt were suppressed.3. Pyotr Stepanovich Kotlyarevsky -
the son of a village priest, was also destined for a spiritual rank, but was accidentally enrolled in an infantry regiment and, at the age of 14, already participated in the Persian war, undertaken at the end of the reign of Catherine II. In the 17th year he was promoted to officer and soon became famous for a number of brilliant deeds during military operations in Transcaucasia, especially the defeat of ten times the strongest Persian army in the battle of Aslanduz and the assault on the fortress of Lankaran. During the last assault, Kotlyarevsky was wounded by 3 bullets and was forced to leave the service.4. Ivan Ivanovich Mikhelson
- Russian military leader, cavalry general, known primarily for the final victory over Pugachev.Participated in the Seven Years' War, in the Turkish campaign of 1770 and in actions against the Polish confederates. For merits in the defeat of the Pugachev uprising, he received the Order of St. George of the 3rd degree and an estate in the Vitebsk province, as well as a golden sword adorned with diamonds. In 1775 he was appointed commander of the Cuirassier Military Order of the Regiment, and in 1776 of the Life Cuirassier Regiment. In 1778 he was promoted to major general and awarded the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky, from 1781 prime major of the Life Guards Horse Regiment, from 1786 lieutenant general.
During the Swedish war of 1788-1789. Mikhelson commanded a corps in the army of General Musin-Pushkin. In 1803 he was appointed Belarusian military governor; in 1805, he was entrusted with command over the troops gathered on the western border, and in 1806, command over the Dnieper army, intended to act against the Turks. Having occupied Moldovan lands with her, Michelson died in Bucharest.
5. Mikhail Fedotovich Kamensky
- Count, Field Marshal, Emperor Paul I in 1797 elevated him to the dignity of a count, but in the same year he dismissed him from service.In 1806, K. was appointed commander-in-chief of the army operating against the French, arrived on December 7, and 6 days later, under the pretext of illness, transferred command to Buxgveden and left for his Oryol estate, where he was killed by one of his courtyards.
Foreign policy of Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century.
I. MAIN OBJECTIVES OF FOREIGN POLICY
go to main1.1 Repelling external aggression against Russia, which was most clearly manifested in the Patriotic War of 1812.
1.2. Strengthening the influence of Russia in Europe achieved during the wars against France, the creation and operation of the Holy Alliance.
1.3. Strengthening Russia's Influence in the Middle East, manifested in the active participation of Russia in solving the Eastern question, in the Russian-Persian and Russian-Turkish wars, which meet the economic and military-strategic interests of Russia.
1.4. Expanding Russia's Access to the World Market and important trade routes. To achieve this goal, Russia sought to maintain ties with the most economically developed country of that time - England, to avoid participation in its trade blockade, tried to achieve from Turkey and Persia favorable conditions for Russian merchants, finally, she fought for the establishment of a free regime for the passage of Russian ships through the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles.
1.5 . Providing Support to Christian Nations in the Balkans and Transcaucasia, fighting for liberation from the Ottoman yoke.
1.6. Suppression of revolutionary uprisings V European countries directed against existing orders and authorities.
- FOREIGN POLICY OF RUSSIA IN THE BEGINNING OF THE XIX CENTURY
2.1. Main directions. At the first stage of the reign of Alexander I, two main directions were clearly defined in Russia's foreign policy: European and Middle Eastern.
2.2. Russia's participation in the Napoleonic wars.
2.2.1. Russia's goals consisted in the desire to prevent French hegemony in Europe and the East to the detriment of Russian influence; and also in preventing the spread of the principles and ideas of the French Revolution.
2.2.2. Allies of Russia were England, Austria, Prussia, Sweden.
2.2.3. The course of hostilities. Having come to power, Alexander I restored relations with England, but also refrained from conflict with Napoleonic France. However, soon the European world collapsed and Russia was drawn into third by account anti-French coalition. In 1805, Napoleon defeated the Russian-Austrian troops in the battle of Austerlitz, which led this coalition to collapse. In 1806, on the initiative of Prussia, a fourth coalition, which, after the defeat of the Prussian and a number of defeats of the Russian armies, also fell apart.
2.2.4. The results of the wars. Napoleon's victories resulted in:
The establishment of French hegemony in Western and Central Europe (the French army occupied Austria and Prussia, which turned these states into French satellite allies);
The creation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw (on Polish territory, which became part of Prussia as a result of the divisions of Poland), which became a springboard for pressure on Russia;
Signed by Alexander I Tilsit peace treaty(1807), according to which Russia was forced to join the commercial blockade of England ( "continental blockade"").
2.3. South direction.
2.3.1. The entry of Georgia into Russia. The normalization of relations with England and France at the beginning of the reign of Alexander I allowed Russia to intensify its policy in the Middle East. The aggressiveness of Turkey and Iran towards Georgia was also prompted to this. In 1801, Eastern Georgia, at the request of George XII, was admitted to Russia, and in 1804 Western Georgia was annexed.
2.3.2. War with Persia (Iran) (1804-1813). Russia's assertion in Transcaucasia led her to war with Iran. Thanks to the successful actions of the Russian army, the main part of Azerbaijan was under the control of Russia, which was confirmed by the Gulistan Peace Treaty of 1813.
2.3.3. War with Turkey (1806-1812). In 1806, a war began between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, which relied on the help of France. But the initial success of the Russian army (the occupation of Moldavia and Wallachia) could not be developed due to the diversion of the main forces to the western direction. Only after his appointment in 1811 as commander of the Danube army M.I. Kutuzov the Turks were broken and signed in 1812 a peace treaty in Bucharest, according to which the eastern part of Moldova (Bessarabian region) departed to Russia, and the border with Turkey was established along the river. Rod. Serbia, which was under Turkish rule, received autonomy. The significance of Kutuzov's diplomatic success was also in the fact that the peace was signed almost a month before the invasion of Russia by Napoleonic troops.
3. PATRIOTIC WAR OF 1812
3.1. Reasons for the war.
3.1.1. The desire of Napoleon I to establish world hegemony, which was impossible without the complete defeat and subjugation of England and Russia.
3.1.2. Aggravation of contradictions between Russia and France caused by:
Russia's failure to comply with the conditions of the continental blockade, which did not meet its national interests;
Napoleon's support of anti-Russian sentiments in the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, who advocated the restoration of the Commonwealth within the old borders, which carried a threat to the territorial integrity of Russia;
Russia's loss of former influence in Central Europe as a result of France's conquests, as well as Napoleon's actions aimed at undermining her international authority;
France's incitement of Turkey and Iran to war with Russia;
The growth of personal hostility between Alexander I and Napoleon;
The growing dissatisfaction of the Russian nobility with the results of Alexander's foreign policy.
3.1.3. Russia's plans to restore monarchical regimes and the old orders in countries occupied by Napoleon or under his control.
3.2. Preparation of the parties and the balance of power.
3.2.1. Military plans of the parties. Napoleon wanted to defeat the Russian army in a border battle and impose a enslaving peace treaty on Russia, providing for the rejection of a number of territories from it and entering into an anti-English political alliance with France.
The Russian troops, according to the plan of General K.L. Ful, intended to lure the Napoleonic army deep into the country, cut it off from supply lines and defeat it in the area of the fortified Drissa camp.
3.2.2. diplomatic training. Napoleon created a powerful anti-Russian coalition, which included Austria, Prussia, the Netherlands, Italy, the Duchy of Warsaw, and the German states. True, a powerful outbreak broke out in Spain popular uprising, which diverted significant French military forces to its suppression.
Russia, forced under the pressure of Napoleon to declare war on Sweden in 1808, which violated the continental blockade, managed to win by 1809 and Friedrichsham Peace Treaty annex Finland. By Bucharest same the world with Turkey (1812), she also secured her southern flank. In addition, a secret treaty of mutual assistance was concluded with Sweden on the eve of the Napoleonic invasion, and Turkey took a neutral position during the war years, which can also be attributed to the success of Russian diplomacy. However, apart from England, Russia had no allies at the beginning of the war.
3.2.3. The ratio of the armed forces. The French army was one of the strongest in Europe, also because Napoleon abandoned medieval recruitment and introduced compulsory military service with a 5-year service. The great army of Napoleon that invaded Russia, in addition to the French emperor, was led by talented commanders Lan, Ney, Murat, Oudinot, MacDonald and others. It numbered up to 670 thousand people. and was multinational. Only half of them were French. Possessing rich combat experience, having hardened soldiers in its ranks, including the old guard, at the same time, it lost some of the qualities of the times of defending the gains of the revolution and the struggle for independence, turning into an army of conquerors.
Russia had an army of 590 thousand people. But she was able to oppose Napoleon with only about 300 thousand soldiers dispersed into three main groups along her western borders (armies M.B. Barclay de Tolly, who also held the post of Minister of War, P.I. Bagration And A.P. Tormasova.). But the fighting qualities of the Russian soldiers who stood up to defend their homeland turned out to be higher than those of the invaders. Commander-in-Chief Russian army Alexander I himself was at the beginning of the war.
3.3. The course of hostilities.
3.3.1.First stage. (From the beginning of the invasion to the Battle of Borodino). June 12, 1812 Napoleon's troops crossed the river. Neman. Their main task was to prevent the unification of armies Barclay de Tolly And Bagration and defeat them individually. Retreating with battles and maneuvering, the Russian armies with great difficulty managed to connect near Smolensk, but under the threat of encirclement, after bloody battles on August 6, they were forced to leave the destroyed and burning city. Already at this stage of the war, Alexander I, trying to make up for the shortage of troops and taking into account the rise in patriotic sentiments of society and the people, issued orders to create a people's militia, deploy guerrilla war. Yielding to public opinion, he signed an order appointing him commander-in-chief of the Russian army. M.I. Kutuzov whom he personally disliked.
Thus, the first stage was characterized by the superiority of the aggressor forces, the occupation Russian territories. In addition to the Moscow direction, the Napoleonic corps moved to Kyiv, where they were stopped by Tormasov, and to Riga. But Napoleon did not achieve a decisive victory, because his plans were thwarted. In addition, the war, even without the manifestos of Alexander I, began to acquire a nationwide, domestic character.
3.2.2. Second phase(from Borodino to the battle for Maloyaroslavets). On August 26, 1812, the famous battle of Borodino , during which the French troops fiercely attacked, and the Russians bravely defended themselves. Both sides suffered heavy losses. Subsequently, Napoleon assessed it as the most terrible of all the battles he had given and believed that the French in it showed themselves worthy of victory, and the Russians acquired the right to be invincible. Napoleon's main goal - the defeat of the Russian army - was again not achieved, but the Russians, not having the strength to continue the battle, retreated from the battlefield in the morning.
After meetings in Fili near Moscow the army leadership decided to leave Moscow. The population began to leave the city, fires broke out in Moscow, military depots were destroyed or taken out, and partisans acted in the vicinity.
As a result of a skillful maneuver, the Russian army left the pursuit of the French and settled down to rest and replenish in camp near Tarutino south of Moscow, covering the Tula arms factories and the grain southern provinces not devastated by the war. Napoleon, while in Moscow, tried to make peace with Russia, but Alexander I showed firmness of spirit and rejected all his proposals. It was dangerous to stay in devastated Moscow, fermentation began in the Great Army and Napoleon moved his army to Kaluga. October 12 Maloyaroslavets he was met by Kutuzov's troops and, after a fierce battle, forced to retreat to the Smolensk road devastated by the war. From that moment on, the strategic initiative passed to the Russian army. In addition, she actively earned, according to L.N. Tolstoy, cudgel people's war- partisan detachments, created both by landowners and peasants, and by the Russian command, dealt tangible blows to the enemy.
3.2.3. Third stage: (from Maloyaroslavets to the defeat of the "Great Army" and the liberation of the territory of Russia). Moving to the West, losing people from clashes with flying cavalry units, disease and hunger, Napoleon brought only 50 thousand people to Smolensk. Kutuzov's army was on a parallel course and all the time threatened to cut off the path to retreat. In the battles near the village of Krasnoe and on the Berezina river The French army was virtually defeated. Napoleon handed over command of the remnants of his troops Murat and hastened to Paris.
3.4. Reasons for victory.
3.4.1. National liberation, popular character of the war which appeared:
In the steadfastness and courage of Russian soldiers and officers who selflessly defended their Fatherland;
In the deployment of a partisan movement that caused significant damage to the enemy;
In the nationwide patriotic upsurge in the country, the readiness of representatives of all classes to sacrifice themselves in order to achieve victory.
3.4.2. High level of military art Russian military leaders
3.4.3. Significant economic potential of Russia, which made it possible to create a large and well-armed army.
3.4.4. The loss by the French army of its best fighting qualities, the unwillingness, and indeed the inability of Napoleon to find support among the peasant masses due to its liberation from serfdom.
3.4.5. England and Spain made a certain contribution to the victory of Russia, diverting Napoleon's significant forces for the war in Spain and at sea.
4. FOREIGN CAMPAIGN 1813-1814 AND
POSTWAR WORLD ORDER
4.1. End of the war. The liberation of Russia did not give guarantees against Napoleon's new aggression. The modern non-estate army of a new type, universal conscription, the presence of trained, experienced, experienced reservists allowed France to form new corps.
Therefore, in January 1813, Russian troops entered the territory Central Europe. Prussia went over to the side of Russia, and then Austria. Napoleon fought with the passion of the doomed and inflicted a series of defeats on the allies. But in decisive battle near Leipzig(October 1813), nicknamed the Battle of the Nations, it was defeated. At the beginning of 1814, the Allies crossed the borders of France. Napoleon soon abdicated.
Under the Treaty of Paris, France returned to the borders of 1793, the Bourbon dynasty was restored, and Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba.
4.2. post-war world.
4.2.1. Congress of Vienna. In September 1814, delegations from the victorious countries gathered in Vienna both to resolve disputed territorial issues and to discuss the future of Europe. The sharp disagreements that arose were relegated to the background when, in March 1815, Napoleon short term returned to power (one hundred days). The reconstituted coalition defeated his troops in battle of waterloo(June 1815), and territorial disputes were resolved as follows: Saxony passed to Prussia, and the main part of the Duchy of Warsaw with its capital - to Russia. In the countries of Europe, the former monarchical regimes were restored, but serfdom, swept away in a number of countries (including Prussia) during the Napoleonic wars, was not restored.
4.2.2. Holy Union was created in September 1815. It included all the monarchies of Europe, but Russia, Prussia and Austria played a key role. The aims of the Union were:
Protection of established Congress of Vienna state borders declared inviolable;
Protection of the so-called. legitimate monarchies and the suppression of revolutionary and national liberation movements.
5. RESULTS OF THE WAR OF 1812 AND FOREIGN POLICY
5.1. As a result of the war of 1812, many people died, huge damage suffered by the Russian economy and culture.
5.2. Victory in the war rallied Russian society, caused rise of national consciousness led to the development of a social movement and public thought, including the opposition. The Decembrists called themselves the children of 1812.
5.3. On the other hand, it strengthened the ruling circles of the country in thoughts about the strength and even superiority of the social system in Russia, and, consequently, the uselessness of transformations and thereby strengthened the conservative trend in domestic politics.
5.4 . Russian troops with victories passed through all of Europe and triumphantly entered Paris together with the armies of the allies, which unusually raised international authority of Russia, turned it into the most powerful military power.
5.5. Through new acquisitions the territory of Russia expanded its population has increased. But, having included in its composition the lands of Greater Poland, for many years it acquired a very painful Polish problem, due to the ongoing struggle of the Polish people for national independence.
During the Patriotic War of 1812 and the foreign campaign of 1813-1814, Russia's attention was diverted from Turkey and the Balkans. However, the Russian government continued to consider the eastern direction of its policy as one of the most important. During the period of the Holy Alliance, Russian diplomacy sought to act within its framework and adhere to the principle of legitimism. Alexander sought to resolve all disputes with Turkey through diplomatic means. He understood that the great powers had their own interests in the East, opposed to Russia. Nevertheless, he was a supporter of concerted action with the European powers in the Eastern question, the use of the Holy Alliance in order to strengthen Russia's influence in the Middle East. History of Russia. XIX century: In 2 parts / Ed. V.G. Tyukavkin. - M., 2001. .
In 1812-1814, the international situation in Southeastern Europe remained extremely tense. Turkey, forced by the Bucharest peace treaty to cede Bessarabia to Russia, confirm the autonomy of the Danubian principalities and provide self-government to Serbia, sought political revenge, the restoration of its positions in the Balkans. Religious fanaticism, anti-Slavic and anti-Russian sentiments were kindled in the Ottoman Empire. They were also fueled by French diplomacy, which consistently fought against Russia in the Eastern question.
In 1813, having gathered huge forces, the Turks began military operations against the ongoing uprising of the Serbs and defeated it. The new Serbian ruler, Milos Obrenovic, accepted the Turkish conditions, which restored many of the old orders. In 1815, an uprising broke out again in Serbia. Russia, which by this time had won a victory over Napoleon, was able to come out more decisively in defense of the Serbs. She supported them through diplomatic means, insisting on Turkey's strict implementation of the conditions of the Bucharest peace treaty on the autonomy of Serbia. As a result, in 1816 between Turkey and Serbia was signed new world, according to which the Sultan finally recognized the Serbian autonomy Mironenko SV Pages of the secret history of the autocracy. Political history Russia in the first half of the 19th century. - M., 1990 ..
In 1816, Count G. A. Stroganov was sent to Constantinople on a special mission. His task was to achieve from the Porte the strict implementation of the terms of the Treaty of Bucharest. No less acute was the question of freedom of navigation in the straits and the trade of Russian subjects in the Ottoman Empire. All these issues should have been resolved by peaceful, diplomatic means, without bringing matters to a new armed conflict. However, things did not move forward.
Pursuing a moderate and restrained policy towards Turkey, Russia gradually lost its influence in the eastern Mediterranean, where the positions of England were significantly strengthened.
In the 1820s, the Eastern question received a new development in connection with a broad national liberation uprising in Greece. In 1814 in Odessa, Greek patriots created a secret organization "Filiki Eteria" ("Society of Friends") and began preparations for the liberation of the Balkans. In 1817-1820, the activities of the Eterists spread to Moldavia, Wallachia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece proper, and Greek communities abroad. In all the plans of Filiki Eteria, the main place was occupied by the preparation of an uprising in Greece simultaneously with anti-Turkish demonstrations in other regions of the Balkans. The government of Alexander I fundamentally condemned the activities of the secret Greek society, but in general continued to patronize the Greeks. The head of the "Filiki Eteria" was A. Ypsilanti, major general of the Russian service and adjutant of the emperor (in 1816-1817).
In January 1821, an uprising broke out in Wallachia, aimed at undermining the power of the Porte (Turkish troops brutally suppressed it). And in March 1821, detachments of Greeks under the command of Ypsilanti crossed the border and invaded the Danubian principalities, hoping to cross from there to Greece. The expedition failed, but the appeal thrown by Ypsilanti was picked up, the uprising flared throughout Greece. Its purpose was to proclaim the independence of the country.
Initially, the Russian government took a tougher stance towards the Greek movement than the rebels had expected. Ypsilanti was dismissed from the Russian service without the right to return to Russia. Alexander I made a demarche condemning the Greek revolution (“it is unworthy to undermine the foundations of the Turkish empire by a shameful and criminal act of a secret society”) and brought it to the attention of European courts and the Porte. Alexander, who believed in the existence of a pan-European secret organization with a single center, believed that the Greek uprising was aimed at destroying the Holy Alliance (since the start of a Russian-Turkish war would mean the actual collapse of the Union). Alexander told Kapodistrias: "Peace in Europe has not yet been consolidated, and the instigators of the revolution would not want anything more than to drag me into a war with the Turks." However, internally, Alexander approved of Ypsilanti's behavior and did not hide it from others. Yes, and among all segments of the Russian population prevailed opinion about the need to help the Greeks History of Russian foreign policy. The first half of the 19th century (from the wars of Russia against Napoleon to the Peace of Paris in 1856). - M .: International relations, 1995 ..
On April 10, 1821, the day of Easter, the Turks killed Patriarch Gregory of Constantinople. This was followed by executions and violence. After that, Alexander presented an ultimatum to the Sultan, demanding to stop the atrocities against the peaceful Greek population. The ultimatum was rejected. On July 29, Alexander I recalled his ambassador from Constantinople. Russia began to prepare for war. But Alexander changed his mind, which was in conflict with the principles of the Holy Alliance, within which Alexander sought to conduct his policy. The consistent implementation of the principle of legitimism required to put the Greek uprising in line with the ongoing revolution in Spain. At the same time, there was a threat of an uprising in the Polish lands, which connected Russia with other participants in the partitions of Poland - Austria and Prussia. Therefore, Alexander I suspended his intervention in the Greek-Turkish conflict and signed a joint declaration of the monarchs at the congress in Verona, which obliged the Greeks to return under Turkish rule, and the Turks not to take revenge on the Greeks.
Russia tried to achieve concerted action by the European powers and collective pressure on Turkey to resolve the Greek issue. But she ran into opposition from England and Austria, who sabotaged all Russian plans to "appease" the Greeks. Castlereagh openly said that the defeat of the rebellious Greeks from Turkey is for his cabinet the best option and "will be the simplest way to eliminate the complications that have arisen in the East." This position of the European powers forced Alexander I to temporarily retreat on this issue. The Austrian envoy Lebzeltern wrote to Metternich about Alexander I: “The dignity, honor, interests of the empire and his august person have been sacrificed. He knows that ... Russia has lost respect ... The Port has ceased to reckon with it.
Meanwhile, British policy began to change. The actual self-removal of Russia from the Ottoman possessions was beneficial to London. After the death of R. Castlereagh, the new Minister of Foreign Affairs of England, J. Canning, in March 1823 recognized the Greeks as a belligerent. English banks provided them with assistance in the amount of 800 thousand pounds. British diplomacy undertook complex diplomatic maneuvers, not so much to ensure real help Greeks, how much in order to tie Russia's hands in this international problem, to prevent the start of a Russian-Turkish war. Meanwhile, the military situation of the Greeks was rapidly deteriorating. Their camp was weakened by civil strife, the struggle for power.
At the beginning of 1825, the St. Petersburg Conference met, in which Russia, Austria, Prussia, England and France took part. She was the last try Russian government coordinate the actions of the powers. The program of the Russian government was met with hostility by Austria and England, coolly by France and Prussia. Turkey rejected proposals for mediation from the participants of the conference History of Russian Foreign Policy. First half of the 19th century. - M., 1985 ..
In February 1825, two well-armed and French-trained divisions of the Sultan's vassal, the Egyptian Pasha Muhammad Ali, arrived to help the Turks. The Greek revolution was on the verge of complete military defeat. On the other hand, the positions of Russia's rivals, Britain and France, were strengthening in the Balkans. By this time, the revolutionary movement in Europe had been suppressed. As a result, in a note dated August 6, 1825, Alexander I declared to the allies that he was regaining independence of action in the Eastern question, that in relation to Turkey, Russia from now on "will exclusively follow its own views and be guided by its own interests." Despite the protests of the allies, the concentration of Russian troops on the borders with Turkey began.
Thus, the foreign policy of Russia after the victory over Napoleon was associated with the creation of the Vienna territorial-political system in Europe (which turned out to be quite stable) and the formation of the Holy Alliance. The inspirer of this alliance was Emperor Alexander I. The purpose of the alliance was to protect the principles of legitimism and prevent revolutionary upheavals in Europe. The wave of Western European revolutions of the early 1820s was repulsed. But the "protective" trend in Russian foreign policy came into conflict with other international interests, which was clearly manifested during the Greek uprising that began in 1821.
Ultimately, the decision of Alexander I to act independently and decisively in the Eastern question became a serious threat to the existence of the Holy Alliance.