What is grammatical meaning. Lexical and grammatical meaning of the word
Lexical meaning words (also called material) are the content of a word, which reflects one or another element of reality (object, event, quality, action, attitude, etc.); This is the meaning contained in the word, the content.
Grammatical meaning words are a generalized meaning that characterizes a word as an element of a certain grammatical class (for example, table - noun, m.p.), as an element of an inflectional series (table, table, table, etc.) and as an element of a phrase or sentence, in in which the word is connected with other words (table leg, put the book on the table). Each part of speech is characterized by a certain set of grammatical meanings. For example, nouns that have singular forms. and many more numbers or singular parts only, express three grammatical meanings - number, case, gender; Nouns used only in the plural have two grammatical meanings - number and case.
Lexical and grammatical meaning – two the most important properties words. Lexical meaning allows us to talk about the world, naming its phenomena in words. Grammar makes it possible to connect words with each other and construct statements from them.
How does lexical meaning differ from grammatical meaning?
1. Lexical meaning of the word individually- only this word has it.
Grammatical meaning, on the contrary, is inherent in entire categories and classes of words; it categorically.
Each of the words - road, book, wall– has its own, unique lexical meaning. But their grammatical meaning is the same: they all belong to the same part of speech (they are nouns), to the same grammatical gender (feminine), and have the form of the same number (singular).
2. Important sign grammatical meaning, distinguishing it from the lexical meaning - obligatory expression. The grammatical meaning is necessarily expressed in the text or in the statement using endings, prepositions, word order, etc. A word cannot be used without expressing its grammatical characteristics (exception: indeclinable words like metro, taxi out of connection with other words).
So, saying the word table, we not only name a specific object, but also express such characteristics of this noun as gender (masculine), number (singular), case (nominative or accusative, cf.: There was a table in the corner. - I see a table). All these signs of form table the essence of its grammatical meanings, expressed by the so-called zero inflection.
Pronouncing a word form table(for example, in the sentence The passage was blocked by a table), we are using the ending -ohm express the grammatical meanings of the instrumental case, masculine gender, singular.
The lexical meaning of the word table– ‘a piece of household furniture consisting of a surface made of hard material, fixed on one or more legs, and serving to put or put something on it’ – remains unchanged in all case forms of this word.
In addition to the root base -table-, which has the specified lexical meaning, there are no other means of expressing this meaning, similar to the means of expressing the grammatical meanings of case, gender, number, etc.
3. Compared to the grammatical meaning, the lexical meaning is more subject to change: the lexical meaning can expand, narrow, acquire additional evaluative components of meaning, etc.
The distinction between lexical and grammatical meanings should not be understood as their opposition in a word. Lexical meaning is always based on the grammatical (more general, classifying) meaning and is its direct concretization.
Lexical meaning can be considered in two aspects. On the one hand, the word names specific objects, objects, phenomena of reality that the speaker has in mind in this particular situation. In this case, the word performs only a nominative function and has denotative lexical meaning.
On the other hand, the word names not only individual objects and phenomena, but also entire classes of objects and phenomena that have common characteristic features. The word in this case performs not only a nominative function, but also a generalizing one (the word denotes a concept) and has significative lexical meaning.
Words have lexical and grammatical meanings. Lexical meanings are studied by lexicology, grammatical meanings are studied by grammar - morphology and syntax.
The lexical meaning of a word is the reflection in the word of one or another phenomenon of reality (object, event, quality, action, relationship, etc.).
The grammatical meaning of a word is its characteristic as an element of a certain grammatical class (for example, table is a masculine noun), as an element of an inflectional series (table, table, table, etc.) and as an element of a phrase or sentence in which the word is associated with in other words (table leg, Put the book on the table).
The lexical meaning of a word is individual: it is inherent in a given word and thereby distinguishes this word from others, each of which has its own, also individual meaning.
Grammatical meaning, on the contrary, characterizes entire categories and classes of words; it is categorical.
Let's compare the words table, house, knife. Each of them has its own lexical meaning, denoting different objects. At the same time, they are characterized by common, one and the same grammatical meanings: they all belong to the same part of speech - the noun, to the same grammatical gender - masculine and have the form of the same number - singular.
An important feature of grammatical meaning, which distinguishes it from the lexical meaning, is the obligatory expression: we cannot use a word without expressing its grammatical meaning (using endings, prepositions, etc.).
P.). So, when pronouncing the word table, we not only name a specific object, but also express such characteristics of this noun as gender (masculine), number (singular), case (nominative or accusative, cf.: There was a table in the corner. - I see a table) . All these features of the table form are its grammatical meanings, expressed by the so-called zero inflection (about the concept of zero inflection, see the section “Morphology” // Russian language: In 2 parts / Edited by L. Yu. Maksimov. - Part II .- M., 1989).
When pronouncing the word form with a table (for example, in the sentence They blocked the passage with a table), we use the ending -om to express the grammatical meanings of the instrumental case (cf. endings used to express other case meanings: stol-a, stol-u, stol-e), masculine gender (cf. the ending that feminine nouns have in the instrumental case: water-oh), singular (cf. table-ami). The lexical meaning of the word table is “a piece of home furniture, which is a surface made of hard material, mounted on one or more legs, and used to put something on it” - remains unchanged in all case forms of this word. Apart from the root stem stol-, which has the indicated lexical meaning, there are no other means of expressing this meaning, similar to the means of expressing the grammatical meanings of case, gender, number, etc.
More on the topic § 52. LEXICAL AND GRAMMATICAL MEANING OF THE WORD:
- 7. The word as the main nominative unit of language. Signs of a word. Grammatical and lexical meaning of the word. Connotation.
- A2. Lexical norms (use of a word in accordance with the exact lexical meaning and the requirement of lexical compatibility, paronyms).
Word as a unit of language
Lexicology is a branch of the science of language that studies the vocabulary of a language, or vocabulary. In lexicology, the word is studied as an individual unit, as well as the place of the word in the lexical system of the modern Russian literary language.
Word- the main nominative and cognitive (cognitive) unit of language, which serves to name objects, processes, properties and communicate about them. It belongs to the lexical-semantic level of language and consists of units lower levels: phonemes and morphemes.
One of the most important functions of a word is the nominative function. It is known that every newly appearing object, every new discovery receives a name (title).
The naming function in the language is carried out significant parts of speech: noun, adjective, numeral, verb, adverb.
By its linguistic nature, a word is a complex, multidimensional, diverse unit of language. The following main features of the word are noted:
1) Phonetic design, i.e. a word is a sound complex constructed according to the laws of the phonetic structure of a given language.
2) The presence of a word with a meaning that is assigned to it in the minds of all speakers given language.
3) Separateness and impenetrability of the word, i.e. the impossibility of additional insertions inside a word without changing its meaning.
4) Reproducibility, i.e. words are not created in the process of communication, but are extracted from the linguistic memory of native speakers.
5) Isolability, i.e. a word can be isolated from speech or context.
6) Non-two-accent, i.e. the word has one main emphasis - students.
7) Referral to a specific part of speech.
Lexical and grammatical meaning of the word
A word is a two-way linguistic unit ( sign), having a form, i.e. sound or graphic shell and meaning - a specific linguistic reflection of reality. For example, a sequence of letters tree becomes a sign (word) because it has meaning.
However, not every complex of sounds (letters) will be a word. N.: And I came up with a word, a simple word - plim.. Here he jumps and jumps. Plim, plim, plim. And it doesn't mean anything. Plim, plim, plim(I. Tokmakova). This set of sounds, although designed according to the laws of language. has no meaning, therefore it does not become a word (sign).
The ability of certain sound complexes that form words to express certain meanings is studied by l sexual semantics- the science of the meaning of words
Lexical meaning a word is its “material” meaning, it is the correlation of the sound shell of a word with a certain object or phenomenon of reality with a single national understanding of this correlation.
Lexical meaning of the word individually: it is inherent in a given word and thereby distinguishes this word from others, each of which has its own, also individual meaning.
Along with the lexical meaning, the word has a grammatical meaning. The grammatical meaning of the word- this is a characteristic of it as an element of a certain grammatical class ( table – noun m.r..). Grammatical meaning characterizes entire categories and classes of words; it categorically.
Let's compare the words table, house, knife. Each of them has its own lexical meaning. At the same time, they are characterized by common, one and the same grammatical meanings: they all belong to the same part of speech - noun, to the same grammatical gender - husband. and have the same number - the only one.
An important feature of grammatical meaning that distinguishes it from lexical meaning is obligatory expression: we cannot use a word without expressing its grammatical meaning. So, saying the word book, we not only name a specific object, but also express such characteristics of this noun as gender (g.), number (sing.), case (i.).
Types lexical meanings
A comparison of various words and their meanings allows us to identify several types of lexical meanings of words in the Russian language.
1. By nomination method, i.e. Based on the nature of the connection between the meaning of a word and the subject of objective reality, two types of lexical meanings are distinguished: direct And indirect(portable).
Direct is the meaning of a word that directly indicates an object, sign, process, etc. and acts as its main nomination in modern period language development. Portable a meaning is called, the appearance of which is due to functional-associative connections that unite one object, feature, process with another: bear: 1. ‘animal’; 2. ‘clumsy person’.
II. According to the degree of semantic motivation There are two types of word meanings: unmotivated (non-derivative, primary) and motivated (derivative, secondary).
Unmotivated is called a meaning that is genetically non-derivative for the modern Russian language N.: road, donkey1– ‘animal of burden’.
Motivated is a meaning that is derivative in semantic or word-formation terms. N.: donkey2– ‘dumb stubborn’ (a person is compared to a donkey based on such characteristics as stupidity and stubbornness), roadside– ‘growing by the road’.
III. If possible, lexical compatibility free and non-free values are distinguished.
Free is the meaning of a word that has a relatively wide syntagmatics (combinability). The connections between words in this case are determined by the real connections of the phenomena of reality. N.: noun. bread has a wide range of compatibility: fresh, rye, stale, ... But freedom of compatibility is relative, it is limited by the semantic relations of words: combinations like wooden, smart, stupid bread.
Unfree is the meaning of words whose compatibility is limited by semantic and extralinguistic factors. Among the lexically constrained, three groups of word meanings are distinguished: phraseologically related, syntactically limited and structurally determined.
Phraseologically related is the meaning of a word that is realized in combination with a certain and at the same time limited range of words. N.: adj. dun can only be combined with words horse, stallion, horse (it is forbidden dun cow or bus).
Phraseologically related meanings of words real(trifle, trifle, nonsense, true); look down (glance, eyes, look), gape (mouth, mouth).
Syntactically limited this is called figurative meaning a word that is realized by this word only in a certain syntactic position: the position of the predicate, address or definition different types. N.: hat(about a sluggish, uninitiative person, a bungler): He's a real hat; Hat! Wherever you go, He, the hat, can’t handle anything.
Similar syntactic restrictions apply to the figurative use (in relation to a person) of words donkey, bear, elephant, snake, oak.
Structurally determined is the meaning of a word that is expressed only in a certain construction. So, verb cry expresses its meaning only in combination with a prepositional-case combination on + noun in V.p.: cry at fate, respond for what(on request).
IV. By the nature of the functions performed Two types of lexical meanings can be distinguished: proper nominative and expressive-synonymous.
Nominative- such meanings of words that are used primarily to name objects, phenomena, qualities. The semantic structure of words with a similar meaning is not reflected additional signs(for example, evaluative). The meaning of the words will be nominative eyes, move, horse, payback and a lot others. Each of them is directly related to the concept and names it.
Expressive-synonymous is a meaning in which the main one is connotative, or emotional-evaluative sign. Words with this meaning arose as additional expressive-emotional names for nominations already existing in the language with a denotative meaning. For example, each of the above words can be replaced by a word that has an expressive-synonymous meaning: eyes - zenki, move - trudge, horse - nag, retribution - retribution.
Words with such meanings exist independently in the language and are reflected in dictionaries, but are perceived in the minds of native speakers by association with their nominative synonyms.
Polysemy of the word
Words in a language can have not one, but two or more meanings. The ability of a word to be used in more than one meaning is called polysemy, or polysemy. The “lower limit” of polysemy is uniqueness (monosemy), which is characterized by the presence of only one meaning for a word: birch, tram.
At the moment of its occurrence, the word is always unambiguous. The new meaning is the result of the figurative use of a word, when the name of one phenomenon is used as the name of another. The following types of figurative meanings are distinguished: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche.
Metaphor- this is the transfer of a name by similarity, as well as the figurative meaning itself, which is based on similarity.
The similarities between objects can be very diverse. Items may be similar:
A) shape: arched eyebrows, a wheel of cheese, a pot-bellied teapot;
b ) location: comet tail, trains, building wing;
V) size: a mountain of things, a stream of tears, a cloud of mosquitoes;
G) color: copper hair, coral lips, chocolate tan;
d) degree of density, permeability: iron muscles, wall of rain;
e) degree of mobility, re shares: spinning top, dragonfly (about an active child)
and) sound: rain drumming, saw squealing;
h) degree of value: golden words, the highlight of the program.
There are metaphors general language, when one or another metaphorical meaning of a word is used widely and is known to all speakers of a given language (a nail head, a river branch) and individual, created by a writer or poet, characterizing his stylistic style:
For example, the metaphors of S.A. Yesenina: fire of red rowan, chintz of the sky, ripe star.
Metonymy- this is the transfer of the name of one object to another based on the contiguity of these objects.
Metonymy is the result of semantic shifts in the language system. It can arise as a result of transfers based on various connections:
a) material - product (mining gold - gold in the ears)
b) vessel - contents of the vessel (drank a glass)
c) room - people (the audience listened carefully)
d) action - place of action (crossing the street - pedestrian crossing)
e) plant - fruit (pear, cherry)
e) animal - fur (fox)
Synecdoche- using the name of some part of an object instead of the whole and vice versa (Synecdoche is a type of metonymic shift). For example: face, mouth, head, hand indicate the corresponding parts human body. But each of them can be used to name a person: A person of Caucasian nationality. There are 5 mouths in a family. Lena is a bright-headed person.
Synecdoche can be expressed in the use of the singular number of a noun to denote a collection, a set: The student (=students) went the wrong way today.
Some characteristic features person - beard, glasses, clothes are often used to designate a person, to address him (in colloquial speech): I stand here for blue cloak(=behind the man in the blue cloak).
Homonyms
Homonyms- these are words that have the same sound and spelling, but different meanings: marriage(marriage) - marriage(defect), p ys(animal) - lynx(horse running).
The largest and most diverse group consists of lexical (absolute) homonyms: rook(boat) - rook(chess figure). In lexicology, there are two types of lexical homonyms - full And incomplete(partial).
TO complete Lexical homonyms include words of the same part of speech, which have the same entire system of forms: key(door) - key(spring)
TO incomplete Lexical homonyms include words of the same part of speech, in which not the entire system of forms coincides: factory (company) - factory(mechanism) - has no form plural.
From lexical homonyms, full and partial, other types of homonymy should be distinguished: phonetic, graphic, morphological.
1. Phonetic (sound) homonymy- word matching in sound: onion - meadow, mushroom - flu. Phonetic homonyms are called homophones.
2. Graphic homonymy- words that are identical only in spelling, but sound differently: roast(dish) and roast(summer); flour - flour. T what words are called homographs.
3. Morphological homonymy- coincidence of words belonging to both different parts speech, in one or more forms: ate(the form of the verb is) and ate(plural noun spruce); three(num.) and three(implementative verb. rub). Such words are called homoforms.
Homonymy must be distinguished from polysemy (multiple meanings). When polysemous different meanings of one word retain an internal connection with the main meaning. For example, the word build may mean:
1) construct (build a house); 2) make (make plans);
3) draw (build a triangle); 4) put in ranks (build squads).
All these meanings have not lost connection with the basic general ‘to create, to construct’, i.e. the word retains its polysemantic nature.
With homonymy, the connection between the meanings of a word is lost: beam(log) and beam(ravine); braid(hairstyle) and braid(strip of sushi).
One way to distinguish between polysemy and homonymy can be the compatibility of words. For example: shaft 1 ( embankment), val 2 (wave).
1. city, fortress rampart; pour, strengthen the shaft.
2. high, foaming, ninth, rolling, running. The words val 1 and val 2 have different combinability, therefore, these are homonyms.
battle 1 - sea, deadly, long; fight;
fight 2 - fist, deadly, long; fight;
fight 3 - fist, deadly, long; fight
The words fight 1, fight 2, fight 3 have similar combinability, therefore, these are ambiguous words.
Lexical homonyms arise as a result of various processes occurring in the language.
1) as a result of the coincidence in form of the original word and the borrowed word:
club(smoke) - primordial, related to the words swirl, tangle;
club(institution) – borrowed from in English;
marriage(marriage) - primordial, related to the verb to take;
marriage(defect) - borrowed from German.
2) as a result of the coincidence in form of words borrowed from different sources or from one, but with different meanings: tap(plumbing) - from Dutch - tap(construction) - from German; note(musical) and note(diplomatic document) - from Latin.
3) as a result of the collapse of polysemy and the separation of the word from its original meaning: garden(fruity) and garden(children's) - go back to a common source - the verb plant. These words diverged in meaning and became homonyms in modern Russian.
4) as a result of phonetic processes occurring in the language, or changes in the spelling of a word: never(once upon a time) and once(no time) - originally differed in sounds Ђ And e, which later coincided in one sound e.
5) as a result of word-formation processes, in particular, by attaching affixes with different meanings
cover (re-cover) - cover (block)
Paronyms
Paronyms- these are words that are similar in sound and structure, but have different meanings. Typically, paronyms are words formed from the same root using different affixes. For example: diplomat - dimlomancer- noun common root diploma, distinguished by the suffixes - at and -ant.
Diplomat - executive in the diplomatic service.
Diploma holder- a person awarded an award - a diploma - or writing a diploma.
In speech, paronyms are sometimes mixed, although they mean different things. For example: they say “put on a coat” instead of “put on a coat.” Verbs dress And put on differ in meaning: put on (what) - dress (whom)
Paronyms are distinguished by the synonymous correspondences that each member of the paronymic pair (series) has. For example:
Synonyms
Synonyms- words that sound different, but are semantically identical, denoting the same concept and differing in the sphere of use, shades of meaning, stylistic or emotional coloring. Synonyms belong to the same lexical-grammatical category of words (parts of speech).
For example: synonyms elk, elk, elk- identical in meaning, but belong to different lexical layers: elk- literary word; elk- conversational; Sokhach- dialectal. Several words usually enter into synonymous relationships. They form synonymous series. The word that most fully expresses the meaning common to words of the synonymous series is called dominant(Latin djminans - “dominant”). Dominant is a stylistically neutral, commonly used word; all other members of the synonymous series are often words with additional semantic and stylistic shades of meaning. So, in a synonymous series red, scarlet, crimson the dominant will be the adjective red. The dominant is at the head of the synonymous row and is given in dictionaries at the beginning
Depending on the functions there are semantic And stylistic synonyms.
Semantic or ideographic synonyms differ from each other by elements of lexical meaning: red- ‘the color of blood’; scarlet- ‘bright red’, scarlet- ‘red of a dark shade’.
Stylistic synonyms differ from each other in their expressive and stylistic load and are used in different styles of speech. In a synonymous row: face - face - muzzle - physiognomy - mug word face- the word is stylistically neutral; face(high, book style); muzzle - face - mug- colloquial.
Synonyms arise as a result of various processes occurring in language.
1. As a result of the “splitting” of one lexical meaning into two or more. For example, verb reforge acquired a figurative meaning ‘to change one’s way of thinking and behavior as a result of upbringing’ and became close in meaning to such verbs as re-educate, transform.
2. As a result of borrowing foreign words: breg - shore, city - city. cruise - journey, And hobby - enthusiasm.
3. Due to the use of dialectal, professional words next to literary ones: hut - hut, hayfield - kosovitsa.
4. As a result of word formation processes in the language: digging - digging, piloting - aerobatics
5. As a result of the addition of a negative particle Not to one of the members of the antonymic pair: low - (high) low, rarely - (often) infrequently, enemy - (friend) foe.
ANTONYMS
Antonyms – These are words belonging to the same part of speech and having opposite meanings: young - old, stupid - smart, meet - see off, above - below.
In its own way structure Antonyms are divided into three groups:
1. Antonyms with different roots: good - evil, long - short;
2. Single-root antonyms: faith - unbelief, sunrise - sunset, work - idleness;
3. Intraword antonyms are pairs that are obtained as a result of the development of the meaning of a word to the complete opposite (a process called enantiosemy). N.: borrow(lend) – (borrow), maybe(presumably) – (certainly ): I'll probably come. They probably told me that the commission would arrive soon. Priceless(having a high price).
Antonyms are one of the expressive means of language. They have long been used in CNT, for example, in proverbs: A sweet lie is better than a bitter truth; There is an angel in people, and a devil in houses; The poor do not understand the rich; Learning is light and ignorance is darkness.
Antonyms are also widely used in journalism, especially in headlines: Friends and enemies of tourism; The luck and bad luck of the famous.
Antonyms can serve as a means of creating oxymoron– a figure of speech, which is a combination of two opposing concepts (two words that contradict each other in meaning): bitter joy, ringing silence, sweet pain, a living corpse, adult children.
Usually an oxymoron is created using the “adjective + noun” model, but other models are also found: “adverb + verb”: Oh how fun it is for her to be sad. So elegantly naked (Ahm.).
Antonymy is used in fiction to express antitheses– a figure of speech in which opposite concepts are contrasted to enhance expressiveness: I won’t better or worse, All That I will, no other, From happiness blaze on cold, From the grief gets cold in summer heat(N. Gribachev). Revolted and old and young (P.); I stupid, And you smart, lively, and I dumbfounded (Color).
In an ironic context, one antonym can be used instead of another: Where, smart, your head is delirious. Using a word in the opposite meaning is called antiphrase. Antiphrases is often resorted to in everyday conversation; Thus, an absent-minded person is jokingly told: how attentive you are! evil: how kind you are!
Antonyms are characterized primarily by contact use in certain contexts. The deliberate collision of antonyms makes it possible to realize them essential functions:
1) opposition: You are rich, I am very poor(P.);
2) mutual exclusion: He had only one opinion about people - good or bad(Sim.);
3) alternation: He either put out the candle or lit it(Ch.);
4) coverage of the entire class of objects, the entire phenomenon, action: From young to old, from morning to evening, both enemies and friends - everyone is tired.
Antonyms can be linguistic And contextual(individual). Unlike linguistic antonyms, the semantic opposite of which appears regularly and does not depend on use (white – black, soft – hard), contextual antonyms are an occasional (random) phenomenon limited by the context: Wolves and Sheep(N. Ostrovsky), Already and Falcon(M. Gorky), boxes - galleries(E. Yevtushenko); daily work– nightly dream(M. Tsvetaeva). What is allowed to Jupiter is not allowed to the bull. Jupiter (god) and bull ( livestock) are contrasted in the Latin proverb as antonyms, although they are not.
Words act as building material for the language. To convey thoughts, we use sentences that consist of combinations of words. In order to be combined into combinations and sentences, many words change their form.
The branch of linguistics that studies the forms of words, types of phrases and sentences is called grammar.
Grammar has two parts: morphology and syntax.
Morphology- a section of grammar that studies the word and its modification.
Syntax- a section of grammar that studies combinations of words and sentences.
Thus, word is object of study in lexicology and grammar. Lexicology is more interested in the lexical meaning of a word - its correlation with certain phenomena of reality, that is, when defining a concept, we try to find its distinctive feature.
Grammar studies a word from the point of view of generalizing its signs and properties. If the difference between words is important for vocabulary house And smoke, table And chair, then for grammar all these four words are absolutely the same: they form the same case forms and numbers, and have the same grammatical meanings.
Grammatical meaning e is a characteristic of a word from the point of view of belonging to a certain part of speech, the most general meaning inherent in a number of words, independent of their real material content.
For example, words smoke And house have different lexical meanings: house- this is a residential building, as well as (collective) people living in it; smoke– an aerosol formed by products of incomplete combustion of substances (materials). And the grammatical meanings of these words are the same: noun, common noun, inanimate, masculine, II declension, each of these words can be defined by an adjective, change according to cases and numbers, and act as a member of a sentence.
Grammatical meanings are characteristic not only of words, but also of larger grammatical units: phrases, components of a complex sentence.
Material expression of grammatical meaning is grammatical means. Most often, grammatical meaning is expressed in affixes. It can be expressed using function words, alternating sounds, changing the place of stress and word order, and intonation.
Each grammatical meaning finds its expression in the corresponding grammatical form.
Grammatical forms words can be simple (synthetic) and complex (analytical).
Simple (synthetic) grammatical form involves the expression of lexical and grammatical meaning in the same word, within a word (consists of one word): read– verb in the past tense form.
When grammatical meaning is expressed outside the lexeme, it is formed complex (analytical) form(combination of a significant word with a service word): I will read, let's read! In the Russian language, the analytical forms include the form of the future tense from imperfective verbs: I will write.
Individual grammatical meanings are combined into systems. For example, singular and plural meanings are combined into a number meaning system. In such cases we talk about grammatical category numbers. Thus, we can talk about the grammatical category of tense, the grammatical category of gender, the grammatical category of mood, the grammatical category of aspect, etc.
Each grammatical category has a number of grammatical forms. The totality of all possible forms of this word is called the paradigm of the word. For example, the paradigm of nouns usually consists of 12 forms, and that of adjectives - of 24.
The paradigm happens:
universal– all forms (full);
incomplete– there are no forms;
private according to a certain grammatical category: declension paradigm, mood paradigm.
Lexical and grammatical meanings interact: a change in the lexical meaning of a word leads to a change in its grammatical meaning and form. For example, adjective voiced in a phrase ringing voice is qualitative (has forms of degrees of comparison: sonorous, more sonorous, most sonorous). This is the same adjective in the phrase media is a relative adjective (voiced, i.e. formed with the participation of the voice). In this case, this adjective has no degrees of comparison.
And vice versa grammatical meaning some words may directly depend on their lexical meaning. For example, verb run in the meaning of “to move quickly” is used only as an imperfective verb: He ran for quite a long time until he fell completely exhausted. The lexical meaning (“to escape”) also determines another grammatical meaning – the meaning of the perfect form: The prisoner escaped from prison.
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Grammatical meaning– this is a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic structures and finding its regular (standard) expression in grammatical forms. In the field of morphology it is general values words as parts of speech (for example, the meaning of objectivity in nouns, procedurality in verbs), as well as the particular meanings of word forms and words in general. The grammatical meaning of a word is not determined by its lexical meaning.
Unlike the lexical meaning characteristic of a particular word, the grammatical meaning is not concentrated in one word, but, on the contrary, is characteristic of many words of the language. In addition, the same word can have multiple grammatical meanings, which are found when a word changes its grammatical form while maintaining its lexical meaning. For example, the word stol has a number of forms (stola, stola, tables, etc.) that express the grammatical meanings of number and case.
If lexical meaning is associated with a generalization of the properties of objects and phenomena of objective reality, their name and expression of concepts about them, then grammatical meaning arises as a generalization of the properties of words, as an abstraction from the lexical meanings of words.
For example, the words cow and bull exist to distinguish between animals based on their biological sex. Gender forms group nouns according to their grammatical properties. The shapes table, wall, window group words (and not objects, phenomena and concepts about them).
1) grammatical meanings are not universal, are less numerous, and form a closed, more clearly structured class.
2) grammatical meanings, unlike lexical ones, are expressed in a mandatory, “forced” order. For example, a Russian speaker cannot “evade” the expression of the category of number of a verb, an English speaker cannot “evade” the category of definiteness of a noun, etc.
3) lexical and grammatical meanings differ in terms of the methods and means of their formal expression.
4) grammatical meanings may not have complete correspondence in the extralinguistic sphere (thus, the categories of number and time usually correspond to reality in one way or another, while feminine noun stool And masculine noun chair motivated only by their endings).
The grammatical meanings of words are expressed using various grammatical means. The grammatical meaning expressed using the grammatical means of the language is called a grammatical category.
All words of the Russian language are divided into certain lexical and grammatical categories, called parts of speech. Parts of speech– the main lexical and grammatical categories into which words of a language are distributed based on the following characteristics: a) semantic (generalized meaning of an object, action or state, quality, etc.), b) morphological (morphological categories of a word) and c) s and n t a c h e c o g o (syntactic functions of a word)
. The classification of Academician Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov is one of the most substantiated and convincing. It divides all words into four grammatical-semantic (structural-semantic) categories of words:
1. Name words, or parts of speech;
2. Connectives, function words, or particles of speech;
3. Modal words;
4. Interjections.
1. Name words (parts of speech) denote objects, processes, qualities, characteristics, numerical connections and relationships, are members of a sentence and can be used separately from other words as sentence words. To the parts of speech of V.V. Vinogradov classifies nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, words into the category of state; they are also accompanied by pronouns.
2. Function words are deprived of a nominative (nominal) function. These include connective and function words (prepositions, conjunctions, actual particles, connectives).
3. Modal words and particles also do not perform a denomination function, but are more “lexical” than function words. They express the speaker's attitude towards the content of the utterance.
4. Interjections express feelings, moods and volitional impulses, but do not name and. Interjections differ from other types of words by their lack of cognitive value, intonation features, syntactic disorganization and direct connection with facial expressions and expressive tests.
In modern Russian there are 10 parts of speech: 1) noun,
2) adjective, 3) numeral, 4) pronoun, 5) state category, 6) adverb, 7) preposition, 8) conjunction, 9) particles, 10) verb (sometimes participles and gerunds are also distinguished as independent parts of speech )[i]. The first six parts of speech are significant performing a nominative function and acting as members of a sentence. A special place among them is occupied by pronouns, including words that lack a denominative function. Prepositions, conjunctions, particles - official parts of speech that do not have a denomination function and do not act as independent members of a sentence. In addition to the named classes of words, in modern Russian there are special groups words: 1) modal words expressing the attitude of the statement to reality from the point of view of the speaker ( probably, obviously, of course); 2) interjections, which serve to express feelings and expression of will ( oh, oh, chick); 3) onomatopoeic words ( quack-quack, meow-meow
Independent (nominative) parts of speech include words naming objects, their actions and signs. You can ask questions about independent words, and in a sentence significant words are members of the sentence.
The independent parts of speech in Russian include the following:
| Part of speech | Questions | Examples | |
| Noun | Who? What? | Boy, uncle, table, wall, window. | |
| Verb | what to do? what to do? | To saw, to saw, to know, to find out. | |
| Adjective | Which? whose? | Nice, blue, mom's, door. | |
| Numeral | How many? which? | Five, five, five. | |
| Adverb | How? When? Where? and etc. | Fun, yesterday, close. | |
| Pronoun | Who? Which? How many? How? and etc. | I, he, so, my, so much, so, there. | |
| Participle | Which? (what is he doing? what has he done? etc.) | Dreaming, dreaming. | |
| Participle | How? (doing what? doing what?) | Dreaming, deciding. |
Notes
1) As already noted, in linguistics there is no single point of view on the position of participles and gerunds in the system of parts of speech. Some researchers classify them as independent parts of speech, others consider them special forms of the verb. Participle and gerund really occupy an intermediate position between independent parts of speech and forms of the verb.
Functional parts of speech- these are words that do not name objects, actions, or signs, but express only the relationships between them.
- Functional words cannot be questioned.
- Function words are not parts of the sentence.
- Function words serve independent words, helping them connect with each other as part of phrases and sentences.
- The auxiliary parts of speech in Russian include the following:
- pretext (in, on, about, from, because of);
- union (and, but, however, because, so that, if);
- particle (would, whether, not, even, exactly, only).
6. Interjections occupy a special position among parts of speech.
- Interjections do not name objects, actions, or signs (as independent parts of speech), do not express relationships between independent words and do not serve to connect words (as auxiliary parts of speech).
- Interjections convey our feelings. To express amazement, delight, fear, etc., we use interjections such as ah, oh, uh; to express the feeling of cold - br-r, to express fear or pain – Ouch etc.
Independent parts of speech have a nominative function (they name objects, their characteristics, actions, states, quantity, signs of other characteristics or indicate them), have a system of forms and are members of the sentence in a sentence.
Functional parts of speech do not have a nominative function, are unchangeable and cannot be members of a sentence. They serve to connect words and sentences and to express the speaker's attitude towards the message.
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Noun
The significant part of speech, which includes words with an objective meaning that have a gender category, change according to cases and numbers and act as any member in a sentence.