Australian Aborigines Today. Level of development of tribes. What do Australians do?

According to anthropological data, the aborigines of Australia are a type of Australoid large race. In appearance they are of medium to tall height, with dark hair that is thick and curly. They have thick lips and wide noses, medium-sized eyes. A feature of this race can be considered a protruding eyebrow. Until the 18th century, 1.2 million Aboriginal people lived in Australia. Scientists believed that they arrived on the mainland from Asia. It was also invaded by Europeans in the late 18th century, bringing colonization and disease with them. The indigenous population was not prepared for these processes and many aborigines died. Before colonization, they were engaged in hunting and fishing, and gathering fruits. Crafts such as pottery and weaving, and metal processing were not known to them.

Aboriginal language of Australia

Australia is a developed country. In our time, Aboriginal people live on its territory, whose way of life remains unchanged. They do not know how to produce, do not use the achievements of civilization and even the calendar. Their culture is original. It has nothing in common with the population from other countries of the world. This is explained by the fact that Australia has lived in an isolated space for a long time. Each of the local tribes has its own language, and it is not similar to Asian dialects. Writing is developed among several tribes, and there are approximately 200 dialects of the language. For a long period of time, the indigenous population of the mainland lived on reservations. These were the most deserted areas where outsiders were not allowed. The population of reservations did not participate in the census.

At the end of the 19th century, the State of Victoria passed the Aboriginal Protection Act. This document was a set of legal norms regulating the lives of the indigenous population. And a century later, as a result of a referendum held in this country, the indigenous people of Australia were officially recognized as citizens of the state and received the right to free movement within the country. For many years, the Aborigines sought equal rights with the white population. Many of them moved to live in large cities. The country has launched programs to increase the birth rate and preserve the cultural heritage of the Aboriginal people. In 2007, they launched a television channel for the indigenous population of Australia. It is broadcast in English, since it is difficult to use 200 dialects at once.

Aboriginal life in Australia

In modern times, Aboriginal people are involved in tourism. For travelers who come to Australia and have a desire to visit its beauty, excursions to the reservation are organized. Tourists are shown the life and way of life of the indigenous population. It is different from our world. Australian Aborigines are the best guides. For travelers, performances are created with dance and song accompaniment, in addition, with the staging of rituals that are considered ritual by the indigenous population of Australia. The sale of souvenirs, hunting objects and wicker clothing is very developed in Australia. Interestingly, about ten thousand people inhabiting Australia are still at the Stone Age level. But it is only thanks to them that the pristine culture of Australia is preserved.

Cultural heritage

Paintings
Art and design lovers are familiar with the canvases painted in the original ethnic technique, which is unique to the indigenous population. Each of the artists describes a different life in his painting. They call it spiritual reality or another life. It's different from modern society and reflects a spiritual connection with the world of the deities. The aborigines still call them the sun and the moon, as well as many animals.
Music
Australian Aborigines are masters of making musical instruments. One of them is the didgeridoo instrument, which is a pipe with a length of 1 to 2 meters. Made from the trunk of a eucalyptus tree, eaten away by termites in the central part. Not everyone can play this instrument, as it requires practice, as well as good respiratory system. As for the natives, they can easily play this trumpet for several hours in a row. As they play, they spice up the music with guttural sounds they make and, for added effect, imitating the sounds of animals and birds.
Dancing
In their dances, the aborigines imitate the movements of the animals that inhabit the continent. These are kangaroos or snakes, wallabies. During the dance, they skillfully imitate their movements. Many of the dances are similar, they have musical accompaniment with playing sticks and didgeridoo. But not all dances are entertaining: some of them have a brightly ritualistic overtones.
Boomerang
It was invented as a weapon by the indigenous people of Australia! Means “returning throwing stick” in their language. They used boomerangs for hunting, but also sometimes in local conflicts with other tribes. To return the boomerang to the owner's hands, you must have certain skills: throw it at an angle of certain indicators and hold it correctly, release it in time, taking into account the direction of the wind. A skillfully made boomerang should have cuts at the ends. He simply doesn’t come back without them. In addition, the Australian aborigines use throwing spears, and they throw them at a distance of up to 100 meters, expertly hitting a target the size of a coconut. The shields made by the indigenous people are narrow and are used for dances and ceremonies. Although they can be used as a defensive weapon.
Geography of settlements
Where do the Aboriginal people of Australia live today? The largest group is in Queensland. In addition, Aboriginal people can be seen in Western Australia and New South Wales. There are few of them in Victoria. But the indigenous population, religiously observing their traditions and customs, is trying to escape civilization. For the most part, they act this way. Therefore, it is not surprising that they are concentrated in the desert regions of Australia and the Cape York Peninsula. These places are difficult to reach for an unprepared person.

The Australian Aborigines are considered to be perhaps the oldest living civilization on Earth. And at the same time, one of the most little-studied and understood. The English colonists who arrived in “Australia” (then called “New Holland”) in 1788 called its indigenous inhabitants “aboriginals,” borrowing this term from Latin: “ab origine” - “from the beginning.”

It has not yet been established exactly, and it is unlikely that it will ever be established exactly, exactly when and how the ancestors of modern aborigines got to this continent. But it is generally accepted that the indigenous people of Australia came here across the sea approximately 50,000 years ago from what is now Indonesia.

Before the arrival of Europeans in Australia, the Aborigines lived throughout Australia and numbered about 250 peoples with their own languages (which do not belong to any other language group), most of which are now “extinct”. The Aborigines led a primitive lifestyle (picked fruits, hunted birds and animals, fished, burned fires and lived in forests, deserts, savannas) for thousands of years until recently. At the same time, it cannot be said unequivocally that the Australian aborigines were primitive people, since they had a kind of religion (beliefs, mythology of the “Dream Time”, ceremonies, traditions, initiations) and maintained their own cultural heritage (Aboriginal music, dances, rock paintings, petroglyphs). The Australian aborigines had certain concepts about astronomy, although the interpretation and names of stars and constellations did not at all coincide with European astronomy.

The most striking thing, perhaps, is how far the “progress” of aboriginal civilization lagged behind the European one, being located at a considerable distance from Europe and in special climatic conditions. This difference dates back perhaps tens of thousands of years. Some tribes maintained this way of life until the early 20th century on the remote islands of northern Australia, continuing to live in solitude with nature.

With the arrival of Europeans, the life and future of the Aboriginal people of Australia changed radically and irrevocably. In 1788, a dark streak began in the history of the original inhabitants of Australia. Most of the indigenous people of Australia initially greeted the newcomers from Europe peacefully and with interest, although some tribes greeted the colonists with hostility. During the first 2-3 years, about half (and in some cases more) of all Australian Aborigines who had contact with European newcomers died out from diseases and viruses unknown to them (introduced by Europeans), from which the indigenous people of Australia had no immunity. The most common diseases that killed the Aborigines were smallpox and measles.

In addition, the colonists killed the Aborigines, drove them from their ancestral lands, abused them, raped their women, poisoned them, forcibly resettled them, and forcibly took away their children. The government policy of forcibly removing children from Aboriginal families under the title “Assimilation of Indigenous Peoples of Australia” continued until 1970 (and in some places longer). These Aboriginal children, deprived of their own parents, are now called the "Stolen Generation". For much of the 20th century, Aboriginal Australians didn't even have citizenship until 1967.

Nowadays the situation has begun to change better side. Since 1998, 26 May in Australia has been celebrated as "Day of Regret" (or "Day of Asking Forgiveness") to the Australian Aborigines for all that they have had to endure and endure since January 26, 1788, when the English captain Arthur Philip founded the first British colony in Australia. For a long time, the Australian government refused to make a public apology to Aboriginal people for the injustices, genocide and deliberate policies to eradicate the Aboriginal race that were carried out during the 19th and 20th centuries. However, on 13 February 2008, Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd made his first public apology to all Aboriginal Australians on behalf of the Australian Parliament. This was an important step in the "reconciliation" of the Aborigines with the rest of the Australian population. Although this apology was made in English and not translated into any of the Aboriginal languages, which a priori can be considered an injustice and humiliation of the Aboriginal people. Now the aborigines do not like to remember and talk about the topic of the “Stolen Generation”, which is “sick” for them.

Today, Aboriginal people live throughout Australia, although they are rarely seen in large cities. Most Aboriginal people now speak English and live in the central and northern territories of Australia. Alcohol and drug abuse is common among Aboriginal people, they have higher mortality and crime rates and very high unemployment rates, which again is partly “stimulated” by the state.

At the same time, among the aborigines of Australia there are prominent figures: famous athletes, talented musicians, scientists, businessmen and politicians. Unfortunately, there are few of them. Usually the aborigines themselves prefer not to be called “aboriginals”, since they all belong to different nationalities (tribes) and do not like to be generalized by this term.

Where to see Aboriginal people in Australia? How to see Australian Aborigines? Where do Aboriginal people live in Australia?

Most Aboriginal Australians today live in the eastern and northern territories of Australia (New South Wales and Queensland), although they can be found in almost any city. The estimated number of Aboriginal people is about 520,000 people, i.e. 2.5% of Australia's population. Almost every city in Australia has an “Aboriginal culture center” where you can come into contact with this culture, and sometimes even meet an Aboriginal person.

In order not just to “look” at the Aborigines, but to learn more about them, understand them, and at least get a little acquainted with their culture, knowledge and history, I suggest you come to Australia and visit one (or perhaps more than one) of our individual excursions.

On our excursions, a Russian-speaking guide will tell you in detail about the past and present life of the Aborigines in Australia, about their mythology and knowledge, about their problems and culture. We know different places where we can show you real Australian Aborigines. On some of our excursions you will be able to see Aboriginal dances, hear music performed by Aboriginal people on traditional Aboriginal instruments (see Digiridoo), watch them throw boomerangs and spears while hunting, and just chat with real Australian Aboriginal people. Our Russian guides in Australia also know places where you can see authentic ancient Aboriginal rock paintings and petroglyphs (from 2000 to 20,000 years old), grindstones and firestones (not in a museum!), Aboriginal caves and ceremonial sites used by Aboriginal people for thousands of years.

You can see all this with your own eyes with me or our Russian-speaking guides in Australia and learn more about the aborigines of Australia.

Our excursions in Australia, where you can see real Aborigines, talk to them or see traces of their life (drawings, footprints, petroglyphs, Aboriginal places, caves):

Sydney:

Excursion with a Russian guide to the North from Sydney to the Cooring Chase National Park - S5
Sightseeing tour of Sydney with a private Russian guide in an individual car - S2 (full day)
Blue Mountains and Australian Animal Park - tour with Russian guide - S4
Travel to the capital of Australia - Canberra - tour with a Russian guide - S9

Melbourne:

Full-day sightseeing tour with a Russian guide to the sights of Melbourne - M2
Tour package of excursions from Melbourne with a Russian-speaking guide for 4 days -TPM4-5-8-2012

Cairns:

Excursion to Kuranda by cable car with a Russian-speaking guide - CR07
Excursion from Cairns with a Russian guide to Australian wildlife and the tropical Tablelands full day - 10 hours - CR08
Multi-day Tour Package 3 days/2 nights with excursions and accommodation from Cairns with Russian speaking guide - TPCR01

Australian Aboriginal culture

Music

From time immemorial, Australian Aborigines have been able to make musical instruments. The most famous of them is the Digiridu - a pipe 1 to 2 meters long from a branch or trunk of a eucalyptus tree, eaten through the center by termites. It is very difficult to learn to play it: it requires a lot of practice and you need strong lungs. Good Aboriginal Digiridoo players can play it continuously for an hour (without stopping or pausing). When playing the Digirudu, the performer often diversifies the playing with guttural sounds or tongue to give an additional effect and imitates the sounds of animals and birds, because kookaburra (laughing kookaburra).

Dancing

Aborigines often imitate various indigenous animals of Australia in their dances, because... kangaroo, wallaby, emu, snake, imitating their gait and movements.

Many dances are similar to each other and are accompanied by playing the digiridoo and percussion sticks. Some dances are used by Aboriginal people only for certain purposes or times of the year, and there are ritual dances.

Aboriginal rock art and petroglyphs

There are approximately 50,000 sites throughout Australia where traces of Aboriginal art have been found (rock paintings or petroglyphs carved into stone, or hand and fingerprints made using ocher - dried ground clay with sandstone). However, in order to avoid vandalism, most of these places are kept secret and are not accessible to non-specialists. There are some places where you can still see Aboriginal rock art.

In order to see these drawings or petroglyphs and get acquainted with Aboriginal culture, we invite you to our Russian-language excursions with Russian guides in Australia. We know these places and are ready to show them to you on our excursions in Sydney, Melbourne and Cairns.

Boomerangs, shields and spears

Australian aborigines invented a unique type of weapon - the boomerang. The word boomerang comes from the Aboriginal word "Womurrang" or "Bowmarrang", which means "returning throwing stick" in the Aboriginal language of the Turuwal tribe. Boomerangs were mainly used for hunting birds, but were also used as weapons in conflicts with other tribes or for hunting large animals. In order for the boomerang to return, you must have skills: be able to throw it at a certain angle, hold it correctly, release it in time and take into account the wind. Also, a proper boomerang should have some cuts on its limbs, without which it will not be able to return.

The Aborigines also used a variety of throwing spears for hunting and conflict, and some can throw spears up to 100 meters to accurately hit a target the size of a coconut.

Shields were mostly narrow and were used for ceremonial purposes and dances, but could also be used to protect against attacks from other tribes.

If you want to see how to throw a boomerang or spear correctly, try to throw a boomerang yourself and get to know the Aboriginal culture better, we invite you to our Russian-language excursions with Russian guides in Sydney, Melbourne and Cairns.

The Aborigines of Australia are the oldest living culture on Earth. And one of the least studied. The English conquerors of Australia called the indigenous people "aboriginals", from the Latin "aborigene" - "from the beginning"

Photo by State Library of New South Wales
The colonists who arrived in 1788 expelled the aborigines from their lands, which led to the death of some cultures and stratification in society. The British introduced diseases against which the local population had no immunity. Epidemics and alcohol finally finished them off. The armed resistance of the aborigines to the colonialists resulted in the extermination of the local population.
For a long time, the indigenous population of Australia lived on reserves - remote desert parts of the continent where outsiders were not allowed. Even in population censuses, Aborigines were not counted. On November 11, 1869, in the state of Victoria, for the first time in Australia, the “Aborigines Protection Act” () was adopted - legislative norms regulating the life of Aborigines. Only in 1967, as a result of a popular referendum, the indigenous people were recognized as citizens of the country and received the right to free movement.

Some tribes have preserved a way of life that is no different from the one they led for many millennia: in a daily battle with nature, an endless search for water and food.

The Australian Aboriginal language is unlike any other and includes six language groups and many dialects. Their speech is complemented by gestures. Most dialects still do not have their own written language.

A feature of Aboriginal culture is the unique designs on eucalyptus bark and sacred rocks. In hundreds of places across the continent - in caves, on cliffs, on isolated stones - Aboriginal ancestors recorded their daily lives for thousands of years. This includes hunting, dancing, ritual ceremonies, and ideas about the world around us.
more about Australia and its indigenous people
According to archaeological data, Australia was inhabited by humans approximately in the period 30-12 thousand years BC. According to anthropological characteristics, the Aborigines belong to the Australian branch of the Negro-Australoid race. Based on language, Australian Aborigines are divided into two large groups: southern and northern. Until the 19th century. The aborigines maintained a primitive communal system. The Australian Aborigines led a nomadic lifestyle and lived in tribal communities that were governed by a council of adult men. Australia's climate is harsh. A significant part of the continent is occupied by rocky desert, unsuitable for human life. But over thousands of years, the local population developed skills that allowed them to adapt to harsh natural conditions. Men traditionally hunted kangaroos, wallabies, couscous, possums, ostriches, emus, birds, turtles and snakes. They were experienced hunters, able to navigate among wildlife. A semi-wild dingo dog provided them with great help.

classic australoids - aborigines Australia.
Australian Aborigines pass on to their children the unique ability to find water in a lifeless rocky desert stretching for many hundreds of kilometers. A spear was used as a weapon when hunting mammals. The spear was sent to the target using a spear thrower, which increased the flight range and impact power. A spear thrown by hand flies 25-30 m, and with the help of a spear thrower it flies 100 - 150 m. For hunting birds they used boomerang. It was made from hard wood - iron, eucalyptus, acacia. The peculiarity of this type of weapon was that in flight it described a closed line, and without hitting the target, it returned to the feet of the one who threw it. The flight trajectory of this type of hunting weapon was determined by the presence of uneven blades and small helical roughness on its surface. Making a boomerang required skill and special craftsmanship. Shields were used as military equipment to protect against spear attacks.

Women have traditionally been involved in gathering. During migrations in search of food, women collected edible roots and shoots of plants, nuts, seeds, emu eggs, different kinds insects, larvae and put them in special wooden vessels that were worn on the head. In the evening, at the camp site, they prepared food from the food they found.

The production of weapons and tools, as well as household items, was carried out by men. Australians made weapons, tools and most household items from stone, shells, bone, wood, plant fibers, skins, and human hair. Many types of weapons and tools resembled those that our distant ancestors, Stone Age hunters, made from stone and bone. For example, the “pirri” spearheads were made with jagged edges and were similar in the manufacturing method to the Early Neolithic ones.

To prepare food they used the fire of a fire. The fire was started by rubbing two pieces of wood against each other. The work of extracting the spark took from half an hour to an hour. The food was not boiled; meat and fish were fried over direct fire or baked in coals, wrapped in leaves. For cooking meat, plant products Sometimes they used an earthen oven.

The Australians lived in huts. Household utensils were not very diverse and were completely adapted to nomadic life. Loincloths made from plant fibers and skins were used as clothing. The scarcity of Aboriginal clothing was made up for by an abundance of jewelry made from various materials and differing in a variety of shapes. Jewelry was mainly worn by men. Necklaces were made from beans, shells, reeds, and animal teeth. Mother-of-pearl pendants were decorated with complex geometric patterns. They were worn around the neck or forehead. Legs and arms were decorated with bracelets made of shells, tree bark, brightly colored bird feathers, and plant fibers. Much attention was paid to body painting. The coloring had aesthetic (to attract the attention of members of the opposite sex), hygienic (a thick layer of paint diluted with fat protected the skin), magical (an unusual combination of colors could frighten the enemy) and symbolic (a certain pattern made it possible to determine the social status of the owner) meanings.

In Australian Aboriginal society, rites of passage from one age or social category to another, or initiations, have become widespread. The ritual of age-related initiations marked the transition. Australian boys to the status of adult men. At the age of 9, boys were isolated from the life of the tribe and in special secluded places - sanctuaries - adult men subjected them to various tests of courage and endurance. Scars were made on the chest and back with sharp flint knives, which were then sprinkled with hot ash for hygienic purposes. After this procedure, the scars became voluminous and persisted.

for the rest of my life. IN nasal septum they inserted a stick, pierced the ears and threaded earrings made of bird bones into the holes.

The Australian tribe was divided into clan groups, each of which had its own guardian spirit or "totem". Such a guardian spirit could have the appearance of some animal, plant, inanimate object or natural phenomenon: a snake, a frog, an ant, a kangaroo, a rainbow, etc. According to the mythological beliefs of Australians, the receptacles of totems or patron spirits - churingi- served specific items oval shape made of wood or flat stones of oblong shape. The elders of clan groups kept churingas in special sacred places, securely hidden from the eyes of the uninitiated.

The ancestors of the people who live in Australia today are mainly emigrants from Great Britain. The lion's share of them is of Irish or Scottish origin. The main period of settlement was given during the colonization period. The main flow began after the expeditionary activities of J. Cook. The first people who wanted to stay in the farthest corner of the world, in addition to the people sent into exile, were officers and soldiers of the British army.

The ancestors of people who live in Australia today are mainly emigrants from Great Britain // Photo: world-card.ru

A few years later, colonists arrived in Australia and took up farming. But the largest flow of people was observed in the second half of the 19th century. Individual groups of colonists consolidated only in 1901 after the creation of the Commonwealth of Australia. It is still possible to trace some differences between people from different areas of England and Ireland. Religions are also different. Thus, the children of emigrants from England (in its narrow sense) profess predominantly the Anglican faith. The Irish, or more precisely the Irish-Australians, are Catholics. The descendants of the Scots are supporters of Presbyterianism. Most of them formed the United Church of Australia at the end of the 18th century.

Expats from Great Britain

In addition to the British, people from Germany and Holland also flowed to Australia. Mass settlement of the once wild lands began in 1788. Around the same period, England began landing exiled criminals here. They eventually founded a port called Jackson. Our compatriots know it as the city of Sydney.

The settlers founded a port called Jackson // Photo: mp-studio.ru

In the 19th century, sheep farming reached quite a large scale in Australia. This factor contributed to people coming here absolutely voluntarily. Since the 50s, the population of the mainland by the British has been very high. People started coming here after someone discovered a rich gold deposit. In addition, this was facilitated by the rather unstable situation in the island state. In the decades since then, the population has almost tripled. Today Anglo-Australians number over 1 million people.

European colonialists behaved quite aggressively towards the aborigines. They killed them or turned them into slaves. The rest were pushed into areas unfavorable for existence.

In the 19th century, not only agriculture, but also industry began to develop in Australia. The construction of railway tracks and stations was actively carried out. The paths penetrated absolutely all corners of the continent. Industrialization was carried out at a rapid pace. All these changes led to this. That the Anglo-Australians have become true indigenous people. The process moved even faster when Australia received dominion status in 1901.

European colonialists behaved quite aggressively with the aborigines // Photo: infomaniya.com

The next peaks of emigration were observed only during the Second World War, because Great Britain was one of the countries that was most heavily bombed. After 1960, when Malaysia and Singapore were granted independence, there was another influx of British. A little later, immigrants from Africa and Hong Kong began to arrive among the Austro-Australians.

Traditions

The bulk of the peoples of Australia live in large cities. However, despite this, people live mainly in two-story houses, and not in skyscrapers. They work in the fields of trade, industry, etc. They have long been able to develop agriculture, even despite the absolutely unfavorable climate. People grow large cattle, pigs, sheep. The culture of Australians is extremely similar to that of Great Britain. Descendants want their roots as much as possible and respect their ancestors.

The content of the article

AUSTRALIAN ABORIGENS, indigenous people of the Australian mainland, including some coastal island groups. Represented by two indigenous peoples, one of which is the indigenous people of Australia, the other is the Torres Strait Islanders. Possessing on average the same height as Europeans, these dark-skinned people differ in racial type from other peoples and are classified as Australoid. The Torres Strait Islanders occupy numerous small islands in the strait separating Australia from New Guinea. They, like the peoples of New Guinea, are mainly of Melanesian origin. In the 1991 census, 228,709 people identified themselves as Aboriginal and 28,624 people identified as Torres Strait Islander. Their share of the Australian population was 1.36% and 0.17%, respectively.

Origin.

The settlement of Australia by humans probably began 50 or 60 thousand years ago, although according to some hypotheses this period is extended to 100 thousand years. Based on available evidence, the people who became Aboriginal arrived in Australia from south-east Asia on rafts or canoes. However, the question of whether the migration process was relatively short in time or extended over millennia, and whether it was random or purposeful, still remains without a definite answer.

The original inhabitants were gatherers, hunters and fishermen who needed areas near constant sources fresh water. When the number of any group increased so much that food supplies within its territory were in danger of being exhausted, a new subgroup separated from it to settle new lands; As a result, the entire territory of Australia was developed. As Aboriginal groups encountered new conditions environment and climate, their lifestyle in different parts of the continent adapted to local conditions. Conditions varied from the savanna, rainforest and mangrove swamps of the north, from the coral atolls of the northeast coast, from the forest, grassland and grassland areas, and temperate riverine, lacustrine and delta systems of the southeast and southwest, to the central and western deserts and to the cold subalpine zones of the extreme southeast. Over time, cultural diversification also occurred, leading to the social, cultural and linguistic diversity that characterized the lives of Aboriginal Australians in 1788, when the first permanent European settlements began to appear on the continent.

The nature of settlement.

Quantitative estimates of the aboriginal population for 1788 vary. The generally accepted figure is 350 thousand people, but some estimates raise this figure to 1-2 million. It seems likely that epidemics brought before 1788 by European sailors and traders from Indonesia wiped out a significant part of the indigenous population. It was distributed unevenly, being relatively dense along the fertile northern, eastern and south-eastern coastal strips and the few perennial rivers, and sparse in those semi-arid and arid regions that cover three-quarters of the earth's surface Australia.

Each individual group lived a semi-nomadic life within its traditional gathering area and remained primarily within the boundaries of its own territory, except on occasions of ceremonies and trade exchanges when different groups came together. Over time, the groups correspondingly moved away from each other, and this was manifested in language and customs. By 1788 there were about 500 different groups, each with its own language or dialect, its own territory and its own characteristics social organization and customs. Such groups are usually called tribes, although they did not possess the hierarchical political unity associated with this term. Often consisting of several smaller divisions, the tribe was usually known under a single name. The center around which the life activities of each group took place was a water source or some place near it. It was considered the historical home of members of this group and animals of the area. The myths told how the ancestors and heroes of the group found this place and performed the most important rituals and exploits and died there. The historically indeterminate period in which these deeds are believed to have taken place is called the Dreaming Time by Aboriginal people and serves as a source of inspiration and self-identity for many contemporary Aboriginal people.

Obtaining food and tools.

Each Aboriginal group had its own stock of knowledge regarding the sources, methods of obtaining and preparing food. In addition to the taboos observed by some groups on certain types of food, the majority enjoyed a mixed and relatively rich diet of plant and animal products, the composition of which varied depending on the time of year and local environmental conditions. Nutritional and healing properties natural resources were well known and there were certain ways of using them. A deep knowledge of their regional resources allowed the Aboriginal people to survive in environmental conditions that European settlers considered extremely harsh or uninhabitable.

All Aboriginal products were of natural origin, and different groups exchanged with each other to obtain raw materials from remote areas. The technology for making stone tools was complex. The set of stone tools included axes, knives, chisels, drills and scrapers. The natives used wood to make spears, spear throwers, boomerangs, throwing sticks, clubs, shields, digging sticks, dishes, fire sticks, canoes, musical instruments and various ceremonial objects. Thread twisted from plant fibers, animal hair and human hair was used to make ropes, nets and thread bags. Baskets and fish traps were made from bark fibers, reeds, palm leaves and grass. In cooler climates, processed animal skins were stitched together using bone needles to make cloaks and rugs. Fishing hooks and various decorations were made from shells. Personal decorations consisted of wristbands and headbands; pendants, necklaces and bracelets made from shells, bones, teeth and claws of animals, woven and twisted fibers, as well as from tufts of feathers and fur.

As befits a semi-nomadic people, their tools and tools were considered the best if they were light. For example, stone tools evolved towards small forms, while larger ones were multi-purpose. Other functions of the boomerang were a digging stick, a club and musical instrument; the spear thrower could be used as a chisel if a flint was attached to the handle, or as a blade if its edge was sharpened.

Traditional social organization.

A local group usually consisted of several families occupying a specific territory (usually called an estate) which served as their base and which their ancestors had owned since the Dreaming Time. Although this land had great ritual and emotional significance, the group's activities were not limited to its borders. When she had to cross the territory of neighboring estates in order to obtain food, exchange or perform ceremonial actions, she observed the principles of reciprocity, property rights and the rules of good neighborly behavior.

The division of labor took place according to gender and age. Men hunted large animals, were warriors and guardians of law and religion. Women collected plant foods and small animals and raised children. Aboriginal groups were largely egalitarian with no chiefs or inherited status. However, their society was gerontocratic. As those who had accumulated the most knowledge about natural resources and religion, middle-aged or older men enjoyed the greatest authority and enjoyed the greatest prestige. Older women also had greater authority and prestige. Social organization was based on kinship. The kinship relations of an individual were divided into several categories, the number of which could vary somewhat in different regions, but the principle remained unchanged: any person distant in kinship by more than two degrees was usually included in a category called by the name of a closer relative. This statement is true for cases of both direct relatives (parents, grandchildren, children, etc.) and lateral relatives (brothers, sisters, cousins, etc.). The composition of these categories varied from one individual to another. Thus, the same category included the individual's mother, that mother's sisters, and her parallel cousins (daughters of women who were or were considered to be the sisters of that mother's mother). This individual called all of them “mother.” The situation was similar with the categories of father, son, mother's brother, sister's son and other close relatives.

The category of family relations between one person and another determined the mutual behavior of both persons in all cases of social and ritual actions from childhood to old age. Particularly important was the fact that, based on membership in these categories, marriage rules established the preference for intra-tribal marriages (usually between specific types of cousins), the permissibility of some marriages and the inadmissibility of others.

The tribal organization included totemic clans, membership in which was determined by descent. Many tribes were also divided into (marrying) halves; and some had a system of division into four or eight sections, which were like halves, had their own names, were exogamous and were not localized. Intersectional marriages and the origin of sections were determined by rules interconnected with marriage rules. As a consequence of exogamy, there was a constant division and reunification of groups as members of one group intermarried with members of neighboring groups, and their descendants in later generations moved back along the marriage line.

Totemism.

Aboriginal Australians lived in constant contact with nature and knew it well. Nature filled them all mental world and artistic creativity, forming an integral part of their social system. The groups into which the Aborigines were organized, and especially the clans, were named after the species of animal - emu, kangaroo, eagle, iguana, etc. A particular type of animal served as a totem for the group, linking it to that Dreamtime when everything was still being created; the animal itself was considered related to the same “flesh” with the group. Marriage between two persons of the same totemic group was impossible, since, being of the same “flesh”, they would be too close; It was also not allowed to hurt, kill or eat one's own totem or flesh. Not only did the totem act as a fundamental spiritual and social guide, but it was also believed that it could actively intervene in a person's life, warning, for example, of dangers, giving strength in times of trial, or bringing news of the needs of loved ones.

All aboriginal tribes had secret and sacred totemic rituals, the central theme of which was the presentation of totemic animals and the reenactment of their mythical deeds. Myths record the actions of those creator beings and ancestors who, often in the form of totem animals, first came to the territory of the tribe, gave it shape, bequeathed to it its population of people, animals and plants and established the corresponding rituals, laws and sacred places. Membership in totemic groups was generally patrilineal. Members of such groups were supposed to preserve myths, care for sacred sites and symbols, and represent the creative deeds of ancestral heroes. It was believed that such an action ensured an increase in food sources at the appropriate time of year and ensured a safe and secure future for the group.

Initiation.

Knowledge of myth and ritual was considered so vital that it was guarded as a secret, to be revealed only to the initiated. All men had to go through, usually in their youth, a long period of strict discipline, various taboos and a number of rituals. Their fortitude and resilience were tested by subjecting them to both the psychological fear of what might happen to them if they broke tribal laws and painful procedures such as circumcision, scarring, tooth extraction, and depilation. Central theme Many of these actions involved ritual death and rebirth to life. Behind for a long period initiation was followed by gradual admission to the secret and sacred knowledge of the group.

One of the important consequences of initiation for the young man was his full acceptance by the older members of the group - the keepers of myths and rituals. Their knowledge maintained continuity with the Dream Time, and the acceptance of this knowledge by the initiates ensured its transmission to future generations. Only gradually, as they reached middle age, did men come closer to fully comprehending the meaning of the Dreamtime and becoming worthy of positions of great religious significance. Moreover, such authority sanctified both social and moral authority. Thus, the basis of gerontocratic management of aboriginal society was religious faith.

Magic rituals, healers and healers.

In the Aboriginal understanding, the world of human events with its inevitable accidents, injuries, illnesses and premature death is shaped by magical rites. Such events were not considered natural or spontaneous, but were attributed to the action of witchcraft, as a result of which attempts were made to identify and punish the sorcerer. In total secret knowledge each group had spell chants with the desire to harm or kill, as well as rituals such as “pointing with a bone,” intended to harm a specific victim.

In some cases, a "witch doctor", an experienced expert in magical rites, could heal by removing a bone or other harmful object, disease-causing. If the sufferer died, he would search to determine the group or person responsible, and often succeed in finding a solution acceptable to the group. In addition to practitioners of magical rituals, there were also people who treated diseases with the help of traditional aborigines. medicines from natural substances.

Art, music, dance.

Art, music and dance were closely intertwined with social and religious life. Commonly known today as corroboree, the nightly performance of song and dance took place whenever several groups camped together. Men with painted bodies danced at a distinctly energetic pace. Women often formed a chorus on one side, but they also had their own dances. They usually sang in unison, but on the Arnhem Land Peninsula in the Northern Territory, where there were specialist songwriters, the canonical type of singing and even the fugue structure were developed.

The rhythm was beaten out by hitting special resonating sticks or tapping boomerangs against each other, or by clapping palms cupped on the hips or buttocks. The Aborigines had only one traditional wind instrument - the didgeridoo, which was a hollow piece of wood or bamboo approx. 1.2 or 1.5 m with an internal diameter of 3.8-5.0 cm. The note range of this instrument is limited, but it can be used to create complex patterns of tone and rhythm. IN last years this instrument is used in Western music to create special effects and is used by modern Aboriginal rock bands.

Much of the traditional music is secular, but sacred songs were performed on ceremonial occasions. Large song and dance cycles, often performed in connection with special events such as initiations and funeral rites, served as objects of exchange between groups and, ultimately, often took place far from their places of origin. These cycles still persist, especially in the northern regions, and recent years have seen a resurgence.

The range of visual art is wide. Stone and wood carvings, rock paintings, ground sculpture, body painting, elaborate headdresses and intricate carved and wooden figures are associated with totemic, initiation and funerary rituals. Weapons, utensils and jewelry are carved and painted, and the corresponding patterns are often associated with the theme of the Dreaming Time.

Regional crops.

Despite the vastness of distances and the diversity of regional conditions of its spread, aboriginal culture was uniform in its essence. Variations in kinship systems and social culture shared a common theme, as did variations in language. (All known languages and dialects belong to one of two main language families, and none of them seem to be related to other languages of the world.)

However, regional cultures can be divided into large groups based on their mythology and ritual life. The eastern third of the continent is characterized by belief in celestial culture heroes, polished stone axes associated with these culture heroes, tooth extraction as a major initiation operation, and the preservation of corpses throughout the mourning period.

The remaining two-thirds of the continent saw a fan-shaped expansion from the northwest of the rite of circumcision as an important part of initiation. Likewise, the funerary custom of placing the corpse on a platform (in the branches of trees followed by ritual burial of the bones) is widespread in the northwest direction over a large area of the western third of the continent; Moreover, the mythology of this region focuses on totemic heroes whose path ended in the earth rather than in the sky.

Arnhem Land's myths and rituals feature a unique theme of the mother of fertility. The role of the hero, usually represented in human form, was more often played by the mother than by the male hero; it was she who led the groups of her men and women, or who led the spirits who preceded them, to their respective tribal lands and, by means of her rites, called into existence all natural species of living beings. The variety of great rituals in this region (some of them dedicated to the themes of death and rebirth of plants) is amazing in its richness.

Aborigines after 1788.

The settlement of Australia by Europeans, which began in 1788, caused radical changes in the economic, social and religious life of the aborigines. Countryside found itself occupied by cities, farms and mining. The process of colonization was in many cases violent. The Aborigines resisted the encroachments of the settlers by usually resorting (and this was most practical for a society built on the basis of small autonomous local groups) to the practice of guerrilla attacks on remote farms of the settlers. In some areas this resistance continued for many years, but was eventually broken due to both the numerical superiority of the settlers and the superiority of firearms over the spear. The number of deaths during border crossings across the continent is uncertain, but recent estimates put the figures at 20,000 Aboriginal people and 3,000 settlers.

Even more devastating than the carnage was disease. Smallpox, syphilis, tuberculosis, measles, influenza, and later leprosy, brought to Australia by settlers, sharply reduced the Aboriginal population. The remnants of many dispossessed tribes were forced to wander near settlements, relying on handouts of food and clothing and living in makeshift or temporary camps. Many natives became addicted to alcohol and tobacco. Despite the creation of reservations, which usually allocated unclaimed marginal lands, and the introduction of paternalistic “protective” legislation, the number of Aboriginal people continued to decline, reaching a level of 74 thousand people in 1933. Only in sparsely populated semi-arid regions did the aborigines manage to adapt their way of life to that of the sheep and other pastoralists who settled there. In many areas, sheep farming was actually possible only due to the availability of cheap Aboriginal labor. And only in the remote deserts and in the large reservation of Arnhem Land did aboriginal culture survive until the mid-20th century, when the traditions of aboriginal artistic creativity began to be revived and received a new direction.

Political power.

With the slow growth of the Aboriginal population, the Aboriginal Advancement movement began to develop. Its objectives were to provide Aboriginal peoples, including Torres Strait Islanders, with the full rights and privileges of citizenship. Until the late 1950s and early 1960s, various states denied them these rights, and government welfare authorities adopted assimilation as a goal to eliminate Aboriginal racial and cultural identity. In 1967, the country voted to change the constitution to give the federal government jurisdiction over Indigenous policies, and in 1973 the government created the Office of Aboriginal Affairs. This body sponsored and supported programs on housing, education, health, land ownership, business, and legal and administrative reform. The Authority was replaced in 1991 by the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission, which spent $900 million annually to support Aboriginal self-determination.

Search best places work, education and health conditions, together with the mechanization of those farming and herding jobs that previously required Aboriginal labor, encouraged many Aboriginal people to migrate to large cities. The collapse of the pearling industry, which in the past employed big number inhabitants of the Torres Strait, forced many of them to move to the mainland.

The largest concentrations of Indigenous populations in the early 21st century have been in large cities, often in low socioeconomic status suburbs such as the Sydney suburbs of Redfern and Mt Druitt. The state with the largest indigenous population is New South Wales (68,941 Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders, or 1.2% of the total population). The next states with the largest indigenous population are Queensland (67,012, or 2.25%); Western Australia (40,002, or 2.52%); Northern Territory (38,337, or 21.88%); Victoria (16,570, or 0.39%); South Australia (16,020, or 1.14%); Tasmania (8683, or 1.92%); and Australian Capital Territory (1,768, or 0.63%).

As the Aboriginal political movement gained momentum, its focus became focused on certain key issues. The first of these was the land rights movement, which aims to return to specific communities the lands that once belonged to their ancestors. By 1991, a seventh of Australia's total landmass was owned by Aboriginal people. In 1992, the Supreme Court of Australia ruled in favor of a group seeking recognition of its customary title to land on Murray Island in the Torres Strait. Accepted in the so-called In the Mabo case (named after the plaintiff, Eddie Mabo), the decision refuted the legal premise that before its development by Europeans, the land of Australia belonged to no one. Another civil case involved the deaths of Indigenous people in police custody and prison. As a result of a number of such deaths between 1987 and 1991, a special commission examined 91 cases and found that they arose from historical prejudice and dispossession of Aboriginal people. The National Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation, created as a result of these decisions, was charged with developing a plan to establish harmonious relations between the indigenous and other peoples of Australia by 2001. However, separatist sentiments among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have given rise to a movement for sovereignty for both peoples, and over the past few years each group has introduced its own flag.