Active construction is a way of semantic-syntactic organization of a sentence, which denotes: the action of the subject directed to the object; action closed in the sphere of the subject; properties, qualities, states, relationships of the bearer of a predicative feature. A grammaticalized form of expressing activity is a verbal utterance of a theme-rhematic structure (see Actual division of a sentence) with a preposition of a subject having the meaning of a person, and with a predicate denoting a purposeful action; for example, “She [Margarita] carefully folded the burnt leaves, wrapped them in paper, and tied them with ribbon” (Bulgakov).
A.K. are heterogeneous in form and meaning (content): the patterns of their structure are determined by the specifics of the linguistic representation of real processes and the communicative intention of the speaker.
The appearance in the subject position of an inanimate noun of objective semantics with a predicate expressed by a verb of intentional action indicates a narrowed functional perspective of the sentence; the speaker's attention is directed to the means of performing the action, the nature of the action; eg: The key opens the door; An excavator deepens the pond; The table covers the table.
The weakening of the meaning of activity is accompanied by the appearance in the subject position of a noun with the meaning “not a person” and, accordingly, a reduction in the verb of the seme of intentionality of the action (loss of personal™), strengthening the role of the speaker, the subject of evaluation; for example, “The frost covered the puddles with the thinnest glass* (Prishvin). The unintentionality of the action is associated with the actualization of the meaning of optativity (desirability) in the verb; for example, a child doused himself with kefir.
The meaning of A. k. - “an involuntary change in the state of the subject” - determines the appearance of both an animate and inanimate noun in the subject position, and a procedural verb in the predicate position; eg: The horse was enveloped in steam; The wound heals quickly.
A. k. include sentences with non-interchange. verbs that have a modal component “the ability to act, called the verb stem”; eg: “The cream spread easily and, as it seemed to Margarita, immediately evaporated* (Bulgakov); The wall gets dirty; The paper is oily.
Derived resultative and relative constructions show the consolidation of the grammatical characteristics of a verbal lexeme that has lost its procedural meaning: sov. view, past tense of verbs - in effective constructions, for example. “The dawn covered half the sky” (Turgenev), “The rainbow obliquely girded the flying rain” (Surkov); nesov. view, present, or past. tense of verbs, the impossibility of varying verb forms, nouns of subject semantics in the positions of subject and object - in relative constructions, which represent a typified or individual way of “seeing” the state of affairs by the speaker, for example: “The light of the month filled the room* (Gogol), “Khvoyny the forest covers all the mountains* (Arsenyev), “...a pink sweater fits tightly to the fur, brown trousers barely cover the heel* (Katasonova).
The word order in A.K. is direct: subject - predicate - object. Reverse word order may depend on the context and speech situation; for example, in the following statement of a rhematic structure, answering the question “What is happening?”: “The fontanelles are extinguishing, the lakes are becoming peaty, the backwaters are being filled with arrowleaf and kuga... * (Leonov); from the semantics of the derivative model of the sentence, where the subject position is occupied by a more significant object of action from the point of view of the speaker. So, for example, when denoting the actions of elemental forces of nature, involuntarily arising feelings, thoughts, physical states in the subject position, the object word form has the meaning of the carrier of the predicative feature, the subject of the state and the subject of evaluation (from the point of view of the observer-speaker): “Berlioz was gripped by an unreasonable fear * (Bulgakov); Her face flushes with shame; The hold will soon flood. Word form in wine. p. plays the role of the subject and enters into predicative relationships with the rest of the sentence, contributing to its “phraseologization”. The generalized semantics of such sentences is close to predication of the characterizing type: The tree is green, not withered. In derivative constructions with resultative verbs and re-lator verbs, the “phraseologization” of the predicative part is enhanced by the constant aspectual-temporal indicators of the verbs; eg: “My whole face and hands were covered with snow* (Pleshcheev); “The rooftops are overshadowed by the dusty greenery of elderberries* (M. Gorky); “[the city] was already filled with darkness* (Bulgakov). The choice of a verbal lexeme shows the speaker’s assessment and qualification of the real situation.
Thus, AK can be classified according to the “activity” scale, defining their differences as a semantic-syntactic derivation from the original construction with a subject-person and a predicate of purposeful action, highlighting derivational steps and derivational means that transfer AK to the border area with passive constructions (for example, stative and relative constructions with a word form in the vin. p. in the subject position).
The criterion for distinguishing between adjectives and passive constructions (see) is the type of semantic-syntactic relations between predicatively conjugated word forms, and not the morphological form of the predicate. This is confirmed, in particular, by the meaning of constructions with stative verbs (see Diathesis), the participial form of which, like an adjective, plays the role of a predicate of a characterizing type; eg: The door is closed; “Like him, she was always dressed in fashion and to suit the person” (Pushkin).

Classification of passive constructions in Russian and methods of their transmission into Vietnamese

However, an attempt is made to show as wide a spectrum as possible. Due to the low appearance of certain features or the idio-electric style, a Representative application is not always possible. The analysis focuses on the pragmatic area, as well as its forms of manifestation. Individual journalistic texts have always been an extremely popular subject of empirical linguistic analysis. Unlike texts such as commentary or criticism, which are heavily influenced by subjectivity, analysis of conventional patterns is of course easier to achieve.

Introduction

Translation of passive constructions into Russian has always been a hot topic for study. The problems of translating constructions in the passive voice in modern languages ​​attract the attention of many researchers.

Since the subject of study in this work is the translation of passive constructions, the main goal of the work is to generally characterize the passive voice and determine the main methods and features of translating such sentences.

Since theater criticism is almost exclusively a journalistic, communication or theater science, there is a need for linguistic analysis. According to the analysis of the corpus, it can be said that the area of ​​weakly conditional texts in the study did not go unnoticed. Although theater criticism can be assigned to a text location based on various criteria, they cannot be used by any means. However, the recipient may also assign relevant theater criticism articles to the theater - unless certain criteria are met.

To achieve the research goal, it is necessary to solve the following problems:

1. Define the concept and forms of passive structures;

2. Determine the main methods of translating the passive voice from English into Russian;

3. Identify the features of translating constructions in the passive voice based on the material of headings and heading complexes.

As information migrates more and more into the substring, the main string within the string largely takes on a compelling function. Unlike informational texts, which mainly contain a compression of the content of the article, headlines in a feuilleton have the task of making the reader interested in the article. The underline creates a double structure that becomes a specific feature of the text location. All of the above areas are exemplary for the language of theater criticism.

Over these years, the average length of supply has remained relatively constant. The trend from hypotheticals to simple sentences is not accepted in theater criticism. Both simple and prohibited sentences decrease, while complex sentences increase. Intertextuality is a typical feature of the locus of dramatic theater criticism. Corresponding elements are found in all classes - with a growing trend. Their use places very high demands on the reader, but at the same time supports and creates an incentive for reading.

> Passive and passive constructions in English

The English verb has a very developed system of tense forms, the opposition of the active and passive voice, the opposition of the indicative, subjunctive and imperative moods. These are the main verbal categories, covering the entire verb system as a whole.

Evaluation as a central element of theater criticism is rooted in most areas of texts. The level of understanding depends on the reader's background. In criticism, informational, interpretive and visual descriptions and evaluations are closely related. Therefore it is difficult to separate it. However, it can be said that evaluation constitutes a significant part of the text. Appropriate weighting is provided to the author and forwarded as well. in accordance with the appropriate setting and idiomatic style of the critic. The tone has changed, with context-based elements increasingly finding their way into the text space.

Speaking about the passive (passive) voice, it is worth noting that this is one of the main grammatical categories of the English verb, along with tense forms and the category of mood. Based on the definition given in the Russian Humanitarian Encyclopedic Dictionary, in our work we understand a grammatical category as “a system of rows opposed to each other grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings."

In theater criticism one can talk less about the individual style of an author in the narrower sense than about style, which depends on the subject and creativity, as well as on the skill of the reviewer in question. Style has a great influence on individual texts and complicates it. In conclusion, it can be said that the authors of theatrical reviews do not linguistically establish virtually no restrictions between education and spoken language, idiom and verbal formations, foreign and specialized vocabulary, syntax and text in construction.

The category of voice, as a distinct morphological category, expressed in opposite correlates, belongs in English only to the verb. A peculiarity of the English language, as is known, is that the subject of a predicate-verb in the passive form can correspond not only to the so-called “direct” object in a sentence corresponding in meaning with a predicate-verb in the active form, but also to a non-prepositional object with the meaning of “interested” persons”, as well as the core name in the prepositional structure of the complement and even circumstances. Therefore, according to N.G. Vorontsova, it is wrong to impose on the English language the usual restriction that only so-called “directly transitive” verbs have the category of voice. The passive form can be formed as a modification of any verb that can denote an action that extends outward, that is, one way or another affecting some objects during its execution and thus involving them, as secondary, subordinate participants, in the process being performed. Therefore, N.G. Vorontsova believes, the content of the category of voice in the English language should most likely be understood as the relation of an action expressed in verbal form to the nature of the participation in it of a person or object determined by this action.

And also the execution of the corresponding theme is very free. Together, all texts have only a description of the main points, evaluation and information, whose weighting may vary from text to text, but extremely. 17 Codification of language. Structures, functions, consequences. The volume collects current materials devoted to linguistic studies of language codification, in particular German language. Both historically and currently, exemplary studies, statements and views can be found, both theoretical and empirical.

Speech - systematically phonetic, grapheme, syntactic and sociolinguistic aspects are the main focus. In addition, methodological problems associated with the assumption of a language code, its formulation and its possible influence on language development are reflected in various ways. Although the language abilities of monolingual children typically develop as a function of age, children who are bilingual may experience different types of problems. The empirical study examines the language abilities of 8 monolingual German and bilingual children aged 4 to 6 years.

As for the category of collateral, according to Ilyish, there are two points of view. According to one of them, this category expresses the relationship between the subject and the action. According to another point of view, the category of voice expresses the relationship between the subject and the object of the action. In this case, the object is represented in the definition of the pledge.

It is interesting to note that some linguists (Zhigadlo, Ivanova, Iofik) identify three more voices, along with the two well-known voices - active and passive - these are:

The thesis addresses bilingual language development and speech in monolingual children and the relationship between bilingual children's languages. The main attention is paid to children's linguistic competence in the morphosyntactic area and in the area of ​​static localization. Analysis of language data obtained using elimination methods in relation to word, verb form and position, subject-verb congruence, sentence combination and irregular verbs shows that mono- and bilingual children are at a comparable level.

This result is confirmed by an additional lexical analysis. In terms of localization, there are similarities as well as differences. In general, the rate of preposition substitution is much higher than for monolingual children. A comparison of language development in Russian and German bilingual children resulted in clear differences in the dominance of the two languages. These range from relatively balanced pre-light bilingualism, to strong German dominance, to almost passive proficiency in the mother tongue. Clear language separation has been shown to have a positive effect on bilingual language development.

1. Reflexive voice, which is formed according to the “transitive verb + reflexive pronoun” scheme, for example, he dressed himself. However, not all linguists recognize the existence of this type/type of voice. For example, Poutsma and Smirnitsky deny its existence, since they believe that reflexive pronouns, although they perform the function of a complement, are still devoid of semantic significance, since they do not show that the action expressed by the verb is directed to the “person” (“non- person") - the subject of the action. However, Zhigadlo, Ivanova, Iofik recognize the existence of a reflexive voice in modern English. The authors distinguish two meanings of the reflexive voice: proper reflexive, for example, warm oneself, hurt oneself (the verb expresses a specific action that the subject performs, having himself as its object); and mid-reflexive, for example, to stretch oneself or to enjoy oneself (the verb expresses external physical changes in the state of the subject, its movement in space, or expresses the internal state of the subject).

However, there are no clear dialect boundaries, but only transitional areas between two dialect cores. Transition regions are characterized by the fact that one space decreases and another increases. Every analysis of sentences presupposes a basic, previously analytically hidden understanding, and the process of analysis concretizes such understanding and explicitly strengthens it: without understanding, without analysis. For analyzes that must be syntactic, a theoretical background is needed that provides the tools of analysis: no analysis without description.

2. Reverse pledge(Reciprocal Voice), which is used with the group each other and one another, for example they greeted each other. Ilyish poses the question of whether the groups each other and one another constitute part of the analytical verb form, or it is an auxiliary element used to form a special voice, a reverse voice, or it is a separate secondary part of the sentence.

Finally, every analysis also needs a presentation method: without conducting the results, there is no access to the analysis. This volume is an explanation of sentence comprehension using a specific, valence-oriented description tool. In the foreground are visualizations of the analysis results using tree graphs. More than 100 small trees have been collected here to form a forest. Moreover, "Wurzburg Forest" proves that analytical method, used intensively in this volume, is a stable tool for the adequate parsing of linguistic units from the free dictatorship of journalistic textual production. 14 Würzburg Forest - a school of syntax trees with an example of an authentic text Sven Staffeldt Claudia Zimmermann Ralf Zimmermann.

3. Middle Voice. For example, the door opened. This voice also has a number of problems associated with the double use of verb number in modern English. For example, I burnt the paper/ The paper burnt; I boiled the water/ The water boiled (in the first case, the verbs indicate the action that the actor performs on the object, the verb follows the noun (or pronoun), the verb is transitive; in the second, the process of what happens to the subject itself is established, the verb does not follow after any noun (or pronoun), the verb is intransitive).

Parsing a sentence means that the sentence is constructed according to certain criteria. Moreover, The Würzburg Forest proves that the analytical method intensively used in this volume is a stable tool for an adequate syntactic analysis of linguistic units from the free dictatorship of journalistic textual production. 13 Linguistic and communicative behavior of civil servants: agent-client conversations in the office of foreigners.

Gesin Herzberger. Conversation-analytic research examines discussions in the area of ​​tensions of institutional and intercultural communication. In describing the natural contact encounters between employees and clients of a German expatriate office, a macrosociological description of the agency work world and the encounter between employees and clients is combined with a microsociological analysis of personal interactions of verbal actions in a situational context. The purpose of the study is to describe the interactive behavior of employees with the client.

§1.2 Passive voice in English

The combination of a word or phrase of substantive meaning with a verb in the passive voice is usually called a passive construction.

In our work, we turn to the passive voice and define it as a sentence construction in which the subject is not an actor (or subject), but is itself subject to action by the complement (in this case, the complement can only be implied without being expressed in the sentence).

To achieve this, various linguistic and communication strategies are developed to create meaning and understanding. In addition, the question of the possibility of linguistic individuality in an institutional environment is considered. It turns out that, both in a linguistic and in a general sense, it is not enough to talk about government officials and about the client. 12 chatacronyms in German.

Since, despite their written implementation, chat communication has some of the features of oral communication, the integration of initially purely graphic abbreviations into spoken language outside of chat does not seem absurd. Additionally, the use of abbreviations as well as word formation processes can be stated very recently with appropriate forms. This is a phenomenon in youth parlance; This applies primarily to word formation. This thesis presents and interprets the results of an empirical review of the significance of six-step contractions and derived forms.

The passive voice is used in cases where the object of an action becomes more important than the subject. Moreover, in sentences with a passive construction, the subject of the action, as a rule, is not mentioned at all. This is because the figure is either unknown or so self-evident that there is no need to mention him.

In addition, an overview of all analyzed forms takes place in standard reference books and various dictionaries for the sociocultures of youth and Internet language. Intercultural communication of science - presented in abstracts in German and Turkish journals on German language studies. Scientific communication is carried out through production and reception scientific texts, since they are used both for the transfer of specialized knowledge and for communication between scientists. In this regard, they are very important in the academic field and are also an object of study in textual linguistics.

Preference is given to the passive voice in cases where it is not customary to mention the active figure for reasons of tact.

The passive voice - the passive - is opposed to the active voice. According to the definition of A. A. Kholodovich, in the passive, the subject does not coincide with the semantic subject. The subject of a verb in the passive voice is the person or thing to which the action expressed by the predicate verb is directed.

Since the early 90s, many scientific texts such as trade fairs, abstracts, scientific articles and reviews have been examined using text analysis criteria. Contrastive studies make a major contribution to the production of well-designed scientific texts in a foreign language. Thanks to these texts, scientists from different cultures can better understand each other.

Cross-cultural studies of scientific texts mainly compare texts in English with texts in other languages. The reason for this is probably the fact that English publications are recognized in prestigious trade journals in the international field and play important role in academic advancement. This is why publishing in English is of great importance for scientists. However, the collection English texts sometimes presents problems for non-native speakers, since the disciplines of science are different languages may show cultural differences.

In communicative terms, a passive construction should not be considered simply as a result of the transformation of the corresponding active construction, since in most cases they are not interchangeable. The relationship between two voices can also be established by comparing the same subject with different voice forms: Not greeted me warmly. -- He was greeted warmly.

The source (producer, agent) of the action is not necessarily expressed, but if it is expressed, then in the sentence it occupies the position of a prepositional object. Depending on whether the agent is expressed or not, the passive construction can be two-membered or three-membered. The binomial construction is widespread in English: We were interrupted then. (Stewart) Champagne was served at feasts. (Snow) Transformation into the active voice in these cases is impossible, or, more precisely, it is possible only by introducing a unit that was absent in the passive voice, and this unit can only be known from a wide context or may be completely unknown.

As stated above, transitivity is not assigned to each individual verb; in most cases it is determined syntactically. Therefore, in English it is possible to form the passive voice with verbs whose basic meaning is intransitive.

Thus, the passive voice in English is not actually related to the transitivity of the verb. This independence of the voice from transitivity is especially clearly manifested in cases where the form of the passive voice is formed from verbs called above “indirectly transitive”, i.e. verbs that can only be combined with a prepositional object: Brown was listened to by everyone. (Snow) However, the passive voice form is also possible for clearly intransitive verbs followed by a preposition: Mr. Dereham is not in his room. His bed"s not been asleep in and all his things have gone. (Holt)

All of the above examples cannot be accurately transformed into the active voice, and, as mentioned above, it is binary structures that are characteristic of the English language.

Another feature is the possibility of combining the subject passive with a direct object:

Not had been given his instructions in private. (Waine) Charles went to the back door of the house and was handed his money. (Waine)

In this case, the transformation cannot be exact either: (Somebody) (the employer) (she) handed him the money. If the sentence Jane told her my story is transformed into the passive voice, then two structures are possible: My story was told her by Jane or She was told my story (by Jane). The last construction is more typical for English.

As we see, transformation from one pledge to another is possible only under certain conditions; transformation from the passive voice to the active voice is unacceptable with a binary construction; the possibility of transformation from the active to the passive voice depends on the lexical composition of the sentence. Thus, transformation is impossible in cases such as I turned my face away. (Holt) "I"ll make you some tea," said Alice. (Brain) "I would say you take a pride in being a sensible young woman." (Holt)

When choosing a construction, you should take into account both the communicative task of the sentence and the lexical meaning of the verb.

There are a number of verbs that, in a passive construction, necessarily require the mention of a subject, without which their meaning would be incomplete; these include the verbs accompany, attend, bring about, cause, confront, control, follow, join and others. The answer was followed by an impressive silence.

Some verbs, by virtue of their lexical meaning cannot be used in the passive voice; these are copular verbs be and become, modal verbs, as well as verbs appear, belong, consist, come, go, last, seem and some others.

The passive voice is used much more widely in English than in Russian. In the latter, the passive form is, in comparison with the impersonal, more formal and more written than spoken in nature, and therefore less common.

Difficult to master are those cases when a Russian indefinite-personal sentence corresponds in English to a passive phrase, which is impossible in Russian due to the fact that the semantics of some Russian verbs does not allow their use in the passive voice, for example: to give give, to grant give, to offer suggest, to pay to pay, to promise promise, to show show, to tell tell, to teach teach and etc.

She was given a cup of tea. She was given a cup of tea.

Not was offered a trip abroad. He was offered a business trip abroad.

They were told a strange story. They were told a strange story.

She was promised help. They promised her help.

You are paid a good salary. You are paid a good salary.

Another specific English construction is close to the passive construction both in form and in the nature of its translation into Russian. Often

The English construct a personal form by making the subject what should, in meaning, be the object. In this case, of course, forms of expression arise that are unusual for the Russian language. We observe this phenomenon, for example, in cases where the predicate is expressed by combining the linking verb to be with an adjective followed by an infinitive.

Not is difficult to deal with. WITH they are difficult to deal with.

Such thoughts are hard to live with. WITH It’s hard to live with such thoughts.

Nylon shirts are easy to wash. Nylon shirts are easy to wash.

Compare the examples given with passive constructions, the predicate of which has an adverbial manner of action.

Not much spoken about. They talk about him a lot. She was easily frightened those days. She was easily frightened at that time.

End of work -

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Appollova M. A
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Revolutions, constructions, including either passive participles, or predicates, expressed by a reflexive verb, indicating that the object is experiencing action from another object. For example, order transmitted by sentry;

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I (English) A 76

Reviewer: Doctor of Philology prof. L. S. BARKHUDAROV

Appolova M. A.

76 Specific English (Grammatical difficulties in translation). M., “International. relations", 1977.

The manual introduces the reader to the characteristic features of the English language and typical cases of discrepancies with the Russian language. It summarizes those features of the grammatical structure of the English language that, due to their specificity, present difficulties for students.

The manual contains exercises based on original language material and aimed at strengthening practical and translation skills.

70104 - 014
A------------ 1 32 _ 7? 4 and (English)

003(01) -77 V

Maria Alexandrovna Apollova

GRAMMARICAL DIFFICULTIES IN TRANSLATION

Editorial Manager V. A. Chelysheva. Editor V. P. Torpakova. Publishing editor Ya. I. Bozhanova. Artist's decoration D. Ya. Kataeva. Art editor R. A. Kazakov. Junior Editors G. I. Kolodkova, E. P. Politova. Technical editor T. S. Oreshkova. Proofreader O.G. Mirnova

Handed over for printing on 21/X-1976. Signed for printing on 20/1-1977. Format 84X108 1/32 Paper type. No. 2. Conditional oven l. 7.14. Academic ed. l. 7.50. Circulation 68,000 copies. Ed. No. 7/75f. Publishing house "International Relations". 103031, Moscow, K-31, Kuznetsky Bridge, 24-26. Zach. No. 826. Yaroslavl printing plant Soyuzpoligrafproma under the State Committee of the Council of Ministers of the USSR for publishing, printing and book trade. 150014, Yaroslavl, st. Svobody, 97.

Price 31 kopecks.

Publishing house "International Relations", 1977

The study of any language inevitably begins with the practical mastery of its basics, sound and vocabulary, and basic grammatical forms. However, such acquaintance with a foreign language does not yet give the student an idea of ​​the specifics of this language, of what in linguistics is called its system and structure, and in everyday life - its “spirit”. It is obvious that without understanding this internal character of a foreign language, our acquaintance with it turns out to be mechanical and superficial, the material being studied does not fit V consciousness organically and easily forgotten. And even after studying the vocabulary and grammar of a foreign language, we often do not speak it correctly and construct our speech “in Russian.”

This drawback is easily eliminated when the learner is in the environment of a foreign language being used in real life. At the same time, he masters the language system even faster than the language material itself: he may already “be able” to speak English and at the same time not know many, many English words, phraseological combinations, etc.

The proposed manual aims to familiarize students who have completed the initial English language course with some of the characteristic systemic features of this language and typical cases of discrepancies with the Russian language. Since the way of expressing thoughts manifests itself primarily in the structure of the language, in its grammar, the manual reveals precisely the features of English grammar, moreover, those features that were less reflected, and most importantly, were not sufficiently worked out in educational literature.

The manual does not pretend to be a complete and systematic description of the specifics of English grammar, but draws students' attention to certain interesting, from the author's point of view, points that give English speech its unique originality.

In general, we limit our presentation to the framework simple sentence. The members of the sentence and the methods of their grammatical expression from a certain angle are sequentially examined. Thus, the subject is considered only in connection with the category of impersonality, because here, mainly, the difference between the two languages ​​is manifested in relation to this member of the sentence. The section “Predicate” describes only types of predicate expressed by verbs of being and combinations with these verbs. The predicate, expressed by action verbs, is not affected at all, since in this case the differences with the Russian language are insignificant. In the section “Circumstance” we are talking mainly about the circumstance of the course of action as the most capacious and mobile type of circumstance. The definition is of greater interest, since it gives many cases of discrepancies with the Russian language, which is why we dwelled on it in more detail. We do not touch upon the question of the complement at all, since in the ways of its expression in English there are significantly fewer cases of divergence from Russian than is observed in relation to other members of the sentence, with the exception of prepositional complements. But prepositions, in themselves, are too broad a topic to talk about them in passing.

In addition, the manual examines such features of the English language as conversion, laconicism of English speech, on the one hand, and the tendency towards certain complications and redundancy, on the other, transitivity of verbs and some other points.

Each section of the manual contains theoretical notes with illustrative examples translated by the author. The exercises are composed of examples taken overwhelmingly from contemporary English and American fiction.

Introduction........................................................ ........................ 6

Subject................................................... ........ 18

1. Constructions with a formal subject 18

2. Passive constructions................................... 19

3. Personification of objects - nouns as the subject 20

4. I like - I like.................................... 21

Predicate................................................. ............. 29

1. Verb to be................................................... .............. thirty

2. Verb to have .................................................... ....... 43

3. On the transitivity of verbs in English 47

4. The predicate is the center of the sentence.................................... 58

Circumstance................................................. .......... 70

Definition................................................. ................. 81

Some specific points of the meaning and use of degrees of comparison in English

language........................................................ ............... 88

“Objectification” of degree, attribute and action. 102

Conversion................................................. ............. 110

Laconism........................................................ ............... 120

Complications and “excesses”.................................................... 134

INTRODUCTION

"The English and Russian languages ​​are examples of two types of languages: analytical and synthetic. The very name of these types of languages ​​shows that in essence, according to the principle of construction, they are not only different, but even opposite. However, this opposition is formal, since it concerns the expression of one and the same content. Cognition of a new language is the mastery of precisely this formal, specific, qualitative side of it. Therefore, one can easily imagine what a significant mental barrier a speaker of one type of language must overcome when mastering the language of the opposite system, and how necessary it is to know the basic differences between language systems .

In general terms, we can apparently proceed from the position that in languages ​​with an analytical system, the logic of thinking receives the clearest external and grammatical reinforcement dissected in its elements, while in synthetic languages ​​this logic acts rather as an internal relation in a sentence, internal connection in a word.

The specification of this provision constitutes the content of the main sections of this manual. Here, in the “Introduction,” we need to point out the most important systemic features of the English language in the most general terms and do this in comparison with a synthetic language, which is the Russian language.

It is obvious that when we correlate the structure of language with the logic of thinking, we approach linguistic phenomena in their connection and integrity, in other words, from the side of syntax. The logic of thinking is expressed primarily and most clearly in the syntactic structure of language. From this point of view, the widely noted fact that in analytical languages ​​the sentence, as a rule, is kept straight, immediately acquires important fundamental significance.

mine and strictly defined word order. Violation of direct word order in a narrative sentence in English looks like something unusual, like an expressive stylistic device. Here we are for the first time and in the most direct form confronted with the expression of the logic of thinking in the grammatical form of analytical languages, for it is clear that the direct order of words in a sentence coincides with the sequence of logical components (subject - predicate - object).

As logic shows, at the beginning of a thought the object in question (subject) is indicated; this is why a sentence can consist of one subject. Then the fact of its existence and the quality of this existence are indicated: simple presence, state or action (predicate). After this, if the action is directed to a specific object, an indication of this object (object) is given. The object-expressing complement may or may not be present in the sentence, which again indicates its logical follow-up to the subject and predicate. Finally, after these three main components of the sentence comes the adverbial as an indication of the conditions of the action taking place. Each of these components can, in turn, be separately defined. This is why the definition falls out of the general logical order of the members of the sentence and can be attributed to any of them.

It is precisely this logical structure that turns out to be enshrined in the English sentence. Here we see the direct expression of logic in grammatical form. That internal logic of thinking, which remains undistinguished in synthetic languages ​​due to the freedom of syntactic constructions, in analytical languages, and especially in English, becomes an external grammatical rule.

This logical sequence of the grammatical structure of a sentence is manifested in the English language so completely that the sentence regulates not only the position of the main components, but even the order of certain types of additions and circumstances. To present this with complete clarity, we need to consider the relationships between the minor members of the sentence. Attention should be paid to the fact that the complement, indicating the object of the action, is as objective in essence as the subject, and therefore can be expressed by all the same parts of speech as the subject.

The circumstance seems to have two poles. On the one hand (in the circumstance of place), it is clearly objective. On the other hand (in the circumstance of the mode of action) it already acquires an equally definite qualitative character. The circumstance of time, in its content, seems to be between these two poles. Finally, a special indicator of quality is a definition, and it is often expressed as an adjective. Thus, from addition to definition we have a gradual transition from objectivity to quality. Moreover, the circumstance in some of its forms is adjacent to the addition, and in others - to the definition. As for the proximity of the circumstance and the definition, we can recall here that the circumstance characterizes the action, and the definition characterizes the object. And at the same time they can even coincide lexically: fast - fast, good - good.

The above helps to explain not only the location of the minor members of the sentence, but also their individual types. So, if a sentence has several objects and one of them is direct, and the other is indirect with a preposition, then immediately after the predicate a direct object is placed, to which the action passes directly, and then an indirect object with a preposition.

Not handed a cup of coffee to me. He handed me a cup of coffee.

The nurse brought a bandage for him. The nurse brought a bandage for him.

Here the logical sequence of the English sentence appears clearly and undeniably. The exception is constructions in which immediately after the predicate, before the direct object, an indirect object without a preposition is placed.

I gave the student a book. I gave the student a book.

But this exception, if you look at it, has a purely logical basis. An indirect object without a preposition always answers the question in the dative case: “to whom?” what? and thus denotes the addressee of the action, as if the doer. Consequently, in an English sentence, before naming the subject of the action (direct object), the persons associated with the action are indicated: the bearer of the action (subject) and the addressee of the action (indirect object without a preposition), and only then the subject is indicated.

which these individuals manipulate. The logical validity of such a construction is obvious: here the subject of the action appears only as a concretization of the action, as the subject of interaction between two persons, and therefore is called after both of them. It is no coincidence that the verbs used in such sentences are special group verbs (to give, to send send, to show show etc.), which denote one or another interaction between people and lead to an addition that answers the question “to whom?”

As for indirect objects with prepositions following the direct object, it is not enough to note that they occupy such a place because they are indirect. Indirect additions with prepositions are those very additions that are close in meaning to the circumstances. For example:

Not received a letter from his father. He received a letter from his father.

She lives with her parents. She lives with her parents.

She pulled me by the arm. She pulled my hand.

Didn't die of fever. He died of fever.

The “adverbial” connotation in these prepositional complements appears with varying degrees of obviousness, but it is undoubtedly present. Now it’s clear why the indirect object with a preposition comes after the direct object and at the boundary with the circumstances. It is internally adjacent to the latter. The person to whom the action is addressed (the addressee of the action) can also be expressed, in addition to the indirect non-prepositional object, by an object with a preposition. In this case, such an addition will again appear after the direct object: I gave the book to the student.

It is obvious that both the formal logical sequence in the use of grammatical forms is at work here, and the fact that the preposition gives the addition, expressing the addressee, an adverbial connotation of the direction of the action.

With this approach, we can speak with certainty about the location of various types of circumstances. We have already noted above that a circumstance has, as it were, two poles (subjective and qualitative), and from this point of view, the types of circumstances are located approximately in the following order:

what sequence: circumstance of place, circumstance of time and circumstance of manner of action. It is in this order that the types of circumstances are arranged in the sentence. Immediately after the addition there is a circumstance of place. In its objectivity it is closest to a supplement. The circumstance of place is followed by the circumstance of time.

Not returned from Cuba a fortnight ago. He returned from Cuba two weeks ago.

If the movement of circumstances of time and place from their “proper” place is a violation of the rule and is caused by certain additional conditions (see section “Circumstance”), then the situation is different with the circumstance of the manner of action. Being in fact a definition of an action, such circumstances, like a definition, can appear almost anywhere in a sentence: at the beginning, in the middle and at the end of it.

So, in the English language, the logical sequence of speech is manifested almost absolutely, and even external deviations from it have a logical basis. That is why in an English sentence the order of words reveals their logical-syntactic functions (subject, predicate, etc.), and in Russian - their communicative load (from known to unknown). Compare:

A girl was standing at the gate. There was a girl standing at the gate.

In Russian, a sentence, as a rule, begins with a circumstance, i.e., with a description of the situation.

There is a typewriter on my desk.

An Englishman will first name the object and only then point out the circumstances of its existence.

There is a typewriter on my desk.

From these examples it is clear that in a Russian sentence the logical stress usually falls on the last word, while in the corresponding English sentence the construction is more formal.

This “formalization” of content is especially clearly manifested in the English interrogative sentence (a simple rearrangement of the subject and predicate and the introduction of the auxiliary verb to do).

She is a teacher. Is she a teacher? He works hard. Does he work hard?

In the Russian language, in a similar case, only intonation acts. In English, the syntactic definiteness of the question leads to the “formalization” of intonation itself: it receives its own constant and clearly subordinated pattern to syntax.

Here the intonation repeats the intonation of the declarative sentence.

So, we can draw the general conclusion that in English, the language of the analytical system, we observe the most complete correspondence of logical components and syntactic forms. In synthetic languages, the specific meaning of a word and semantic stress dominate formal syntactic moments, which leads to much greater external freedom of syntactic constructions and almost complete absence formally fixing the place of a word in a sentence.

Elements of language, taken individually (and therefore in their morphological meaning), are, of course, much less indicative from the point of view of reflecting the language system as a whole than the same elements included in a sentence. However, if we take the morphology as a whole, then its full correspondence with the syntax, and therefore with the characteristic features

of this language system turns out to be completely obvious. After all, syntax and morphology are two sides of the same language process. In this regard, we can say that in synthetic languages, relationships are determined within the word itself with the help of inflections, therefore this word, already correlated with other members of the sentence, can appear almost anywhere in the sentence. Analyticism in the development of language is expressed as an increase in the proportion of syntactic canons, assigning a certain place to a word in a sentence, and at the same time as the erasure of the morphological features of a word that lose their immediate necessity.

The loss of declension and conjugation occurred, obviously, due to the increasing share of syntax and the consolidation of a constant word order, when the position of a word in a sentence had already become an indicator of its role in logical semantic connections and relationships. If this is not enough, the English resort to the help of a new element in the structure of the sentence, a preposition, i.e., again a syntactic element, and not a morphological one. In this case, prepositions often have a purely grammatical meaning and are not translated into Russian. For example:

This is a great work of art. This is a great work

art. (genitive case) Didn't write a letter to his friend. He wrote a letter

circle.(dative case) You don't cut fish with a knife. Fish knife ohm don't cut.

(instrumental case)

Maintaining 3rd person shape singular in the conjugation of verbs and the genitive case form to express the membership function requires its own historical explanation, which is not part of our task. But we must emphasize that in this case we are dealing with such rudiments of “morphologism” in the English language, which only confirm the rule, only highlight the decisive and consistent turn of this language towards the syntactic expression of basic semantic relations and towards liberation from morphological means of their transmission.

From this point of view, conversion, so characteristic of the English language, becomes significant. In conversion we undoubtedly again see the predominance of syntax over morphology. In English

(as an analytical language) parts of speech do not have such a clear formal expression as in synthetic languages. There is no (and cannot be after the loss of conjugation and declension) such a sharp contrast between the forms of the noun and the verb, which takes place in the Russian language. Sometimes only a fixed word order allows you to determine which parts of speech certain words belong to. For example:

Fathers father children.

In those syntactic and morphological features of the English language that we just talked about, their systemic conditionality, the logic of the development of grammatical forms manifest themselves quite obviously. But, having once arisen, this or that linguistic phenomenon itself already serves as the basis for further development, further linguistic changes and searches. Therefore, in a language, secondary phenomena must arise on its systemic fundamental basis, the direct explanation of which must be sought not in the most general systemic features of the language, but in more specific evolutions of grammatical forms. Here we stand at the origins of stylistics and phraseology, their contact with grammar.

To approach these “secondary” manifestations of the systemic nature of language more specifically, let us draw attention to the fact that every language strives to save linguistic means. But in the languages ​​of different systems this problem is solved with their own specific methods. In synthetic languages ​​this is achieved, in particular, by reducing the length of the sentence. In analytical languages, and in particular in English, due to the fact that we are obliged to maintain a certain structure of the sentence and, therefore, maintain the stability of the basic elements of this structure, the tendency towards laconicism is carried out in a contradictory unity with this law of stability.

For example, it is precisely thanks to the stability of speech structure in the English language that the idea of ​​negation can be expressed and is expressed by only one negation in a sentence.

I can find it nowhere. I nowhere I can find it.

If a sentence contains two homogeneous predicates, expressed by verbs with different controls, then the complement is placed only after the second predicate, then

as when translating into Russian, we will repeat it twice, replacing it in the second case with a personal pronoun.

You applied for and received an allowance. You turned for help and received her.

Only on the basis of the structural definiteness of speech could the form of answer to the question that we find in the English language arise.

"Are you a student?" "Yes, I am."

It is obvious that a manifestation of the same tendency towards brevity of a statement with its structural completeness is the use auxiliary verbs without semantic ones (sometimes replacing a whole sentence, usually in dialogical speech), the use of to without a subsequent infinitive, as well as substitute words.

"I"ve never seen an airplane crash." "You will one day," somebody laughed. "I've never seen a plane crash." "You'll see someday,” someone laughed.

"You must come and see us at Stanford." "We will that," Con assured him. "You should visit us at Stanford." "Definitely let's visit"- Kon assured him.

You needn"t come in with me if you don"t want to. You don't have to come in with me if you don't want to.

It is a story, and a good one. This is a story and story good.

The plan was an easy one to carry out. This plan was easy to implement.

The range of examples in this case could be easily expanded, and we will talk about similar phenomena in separate sections of the manual.

If synthetic languages ​​strive to simplify individual sentences in every possible way, but tend to build a complex system of sentences connected by a conjunction, then analytical languages ​​(and especially English), on the contrary, whenever possible, strive to solve all problems within one simple sentence. Of course, this should not be understood absolutely; we are talking about the prevailing trend.

There are a number of constructions in the English language: participial, gerundial and infinitive phrases - these unique “ready-made formulas” of speech. Use

they are created by a feeling of a certain compactness of the sentence. The desire to maintain continuity and unity of the phrase is already obvious in sentences like:

I like the sound of this new name. I like, what does it sound like this is a new name.

This unity is especially clearly manifested in cases where the main clause is wedged inside a subordinate clause or a subordinate clause - inside the main clause, often without a conjunction.

When do you think he"ll come? When do you think he will come?

In some cases, the cohesion of the main and subordinate clauses leads to the commonality of their individual members.

What does Bessie say I have done? (lit.:“What does Bessie say I did?”)

(Here what refers to both the main and subordinate clauses.)

Everybody was watching except Adele, whom Leo now noticed with surprise was dressed in her uniform. Everyone was watching except Adele, who, as Leo noticed to his surprise, was wearing her uniform.

(The conjunctive pronoun whom is part of two subordinate clauses, being an object and a subject - even in the indirect case - at the same time.)

Speaking about the structural constancy of English speech, it should be borne in mind that the syntactic constraint associated with it must be compensated for by something: and now the place of syntactic freedom in the English language is replaced by morphological and semantic freedom. It finds its expression in creative use, with the aim of enriching speech, conversion, easy interchange of transitive and intransitive verbs - everything that distinguishes the analytical system of language in this area from the synthetic one.

Thus, conversion in English receives some specific internal content and promotes figurative speech.

He cascaded the cards. He shuffled cards.

I think I"ll tea-and-egg it here. I'll have a snack I'm here.

Tewsborough's downed me. I'm in Tewsboro failed.

Some verbs (expressing emotional reactions or conveying gestures, facial expressions) - to smile, to laugh, to sob, to sigh, to shrug, etc. - acquire greater semantic capacity and are translated into Russian, as a rule, not as one word, but as a combination words We usually observe such an expansion of the meaning of these verbs in the words of the author in direct speech.

"You are too self-conscious," she smiled."You're too shy" said she, smiling.

"You may do whatever you like," he shrugged.“You can do whatever you want,” said He, shrugging.

Emotional enrichment is also achieved in English through peculiar combinations: She laughed herself out of the trouble. She got out of the situation, laughing. They seemed to sing themselves back into another and happier world. It seemed that this singing returned them to another, happier world. But Alma wiped her remark away. But Alma just brushed off her remark.* Here the English resort to metaphor, to a collision within “normal” grammatical constructions of semantically incompatible words.

Don't laugh off her taunts. In response to her taunts, he got off with a joke. (lit.:“He laughed off her barbs.”)

Without allowing himself freedom in the construction of speech, in its form, the Englishman allows this freedom in relation to the meaning of the statement. In Russian, this kind of metaphorization would be much more strongly felt as a phenomenon of a stylistic-aesthetic nature, whereas in English it is regarded rather as a habitual, “technical” device.

In the linguistic phenomena considered, we are already really faced with what is universally recognized as a manifestation of the “spirit”, the originality of the English language. But as we have seen, all this (even if sometimes indirectly) follows

* Cm. T. R. Levitskaya, A. M Fiterman. Translation problems. M., “International Relations”, 1976, p. 162.

from his analytical system. The peculiarity of the English language in this regard is that analyticism is carried out in it, perhaps as consistently as in any other language.

Although it is precisely in phraseology and stylistics, or in any case in phenomena that stand on the verge of them, that the character of language is expressed with the greatest brightness and completeness, however, both in theoretical and educational terms, before approaching these complex results of specific language development, we must find out for ourselves the most systematic fundamental basis of language. In this manual we address precisely this subject, limiting ourselves, as noted above, to the framework of a simple narrative sentence.

SUBJECT 1. Constructions with a formal subject

The main difference between synthetic languages ​​and analytical languages ​​in the issue under consideration is that, since in analytical languages ​​there is a constant order of words in a sentence and the presence of a subject (as well as a predicate) is required, even impersonal and vaguely personal sentences are formalized in them as personal. This is achieved in various ways, in particular, with the help of constructions with a formal subject. The pronouns it, one, they, you, we are used as such a formal subject. For example:

It is raining. It's raining.

It was pleasant to bask in the sun. It was nice to bask in the sun.

One never knows when he gets mad. You never know when he'll get angry.

You can't help loving him. You can't help but love him.

They say he's back. They say he's back.

Come and taste the coffee that we make in Sweden. Try the coffee we brew here in Sweden.

A slightly different kind of formal subject is the introducing there, which, followed by the linking verb to be, denotes the presence of an object or person.

There is a telephone in that room. In that room there is

telephone. There are plenty of people there. There are a lot of people there.

Instead of the verb to be, other verbs of modal meaning can be used in this construction: to seem seem, to prove turn out to be and so on.; with the meaning of existence, appearance or movement: to live live, to occur happen, to come come and etc.

There seemed no limit to her demands. It seemed not

the end of her demands. There looked like being a row. It looked like

a scandal will break out. There lived an old man in that house. Lived in that house

old man. There came Victoria running up the little hill. (To us)

Victoria was running up the hill.

The introduction there is often used with a gerund in the negative form.

There was no stopping him. It was impossible to stop him.

There was never any telling what would he do. There was no way to predict what he would do.

Passive constructions

The passive voice is used much more widely in English than in Russian. In the latter, the passive form is, in comparison with the impersonal, more formal and more written than spoken in nature, and therefore less common.

Difficult to master are those cases when a Russian indefinite-personal sentence corresponds in English to a passive phrase, which is impossible in Russian due to the fact that the semantics of some Russian verbs does not allow their use in the passive voice, for example: to give give, to grant give, to offer suggest, to pay to pay, to promise promise, to show show, to tell tell, to teach teach and etc.

She was given a cup of tea. She was given a cup of tea.

Not was offered a trip abroad. He was offered a business trip abroad.

They were told a strange story. They were told a strange story.

She was promised help. They promised her help.

You are paid a good salary. You are paid a good salary.

Another specific English construction is close to the passive construction both in form and in the nature of its translation into Russian. Often

The English construct a personal form by making the subject what should, in meaning, be the object. In this case, of course, forms of expression arise that are unusual for the Russian language. We observe this phenomenon, for example, in cases where the predicate is expressed by combining the linking verb to be with an adjective followed by an infinitive.

Not is difficult to deal with. WITH they are difficult to deal with.

Such thoughts are hard to live with. WITH It’s hard to live with such thoughts.

Nylon shirts are easy to wash. Nylon shirts are easy to wash.

Compare the examples given with passive constructions, the predicate of which has an adverbial manner of action.

Not much spoken about. They talk about him a lot. She was easily frightened those days. She was easily frightened at that time.

We analyzed 4 types of documents: organizational documents, distribution documents, protocol, information and reference documents.

Of the ten document texts, only four contained passive constructions, namely a linking verb and a short passive participle, which is a feature of writing business paper texts.

Report

I, Sidorova G.P., bring to your attention that on April 23, through the fault of the painter Ivanov P.G. there was a defect in the car body, namely lack of paint. 04/23/2007. Sidorova

A marriage was allowed - a verbal connection and a short passive participle.

Statement of claim

Statement on protection of honor and dignity

Tkachuk M.P. is my neighbor. There was a hostile relationship between us. I am a participant in the Great Patriotic War. I was given the appropriate certificate and have government awards.

On February 9, 1996, Tkachuk wrote to my place of work - the Krasnye Zori plant - a statement in which she indicated that I had participated in the Great Patriotic War did not accept, submitted false documents to obtain a certificate and misappropriated another person's awards.

All this is untrue and discredits my dignity.

Based on the above and in accordance with Article 7. Civil Code of the Russian Federation I ask:

Oblige Maria Pavlovna Tkachuk to send a letter to my place of work refuting the information she presented in her statement dated February 9, 1986.

Enclosure: another copy of the application; State duty receipt.

The corresponding certificate was issued - a short passive adjective.

Moscow State University them. M.V. Lomonosova

Petrykina Elena Alekseevna is a third-year full-time student at the Faculty of Sociology.

A certificate has been issued for presentation to the clinic

Dean of the Faculty of Sociology signature

Certificate issued - verb participle

Explanation

Based on the substantive questions asked to me, I can explain the following: I, Valentina Vladimirovna Malova, on April 23 at 16:45, walking home from work, saw the following: in front of the traffic light at the intersection of Avtostroiteley and Dzerzhinsky streets, a VAZ 2110 state-owned car was collided with. number N 921 NU for a pedestrian moving along the pedestrian line when the light is green. Handwritten and correct.

04/24/2007 Malova

For a pedestrian moving along a pedestrian line - a verbal connection and a passive participle.

Thus, passive constructions were discovered in documents such as a report and a certificate - these are information and reference documents, and in documents that relate to the protocol - this is a statement of claim and an explanation.