About the problem of the Serebryakovs in Tsaritsyn. About the problem of silverweeds in Tsaritsyn Diversity and variability of plant life forms

“Communication as interaction” - Non-dominant interlocutor. Extrovert. Communication in adolescence. "Me and you". Scheme of the INTERACTION process. It is in the nature of contacts with friends who are easily exchanged for others. Get acquainted with the features of communication as interpersonal interaction. Two sides of interaction. Forms of youthful communication.

“Internal Policy of Alexander 3” - Zemstvo Chiefs. Governors received the right to suspend decisions of zemstvos. Control over the volost court. 1884 – student unrest. Attempts at judicial counter-reform. Pobedonostsev. Class composition of zemstvo assemblies. Censorship counter-reform. The establishment of juries in criminal courts turned out to be completely false for Russia.

“The rule for adding and subtracting decimals” - Adding and subtracting fractions. Express it. Number of signs. Independent work. Decimals. Verbal counting. Ways to solve problems. Compare decimals. Offers. Find equal fractions. Brigade. Adding and subtracting decimals. Action algorithm. M o. Mathematical lotto.

"Bariatrics" - Gastric banding. Bariatrics. Think about it! Bariatrics (from ancient Greek ????? - weight, heaviness, and ??????? - treatment). Banding allows you to achieve weight loss by 50-60% of excess body weight. Medical consequences of obesity. The small intestine is sutured to the small stomach in a short way. in seven cases out of ten, the weight returns.

"Blood pressure" - Blood pressure. Blood pressure measurement. The division price of an aneroid barometer. Experiment. Measurement methods. Blood pressure monitoring. Atmosphere pressure. Blood pressure indicators. What affects blood pressure. What is blood pressure?

“General characteristics of the class of Mammals” - Habitat and external structure of mammals. Mammals have now mastered different habitats. Cooling the body. Horns. Determine what sense organs are developed in mammals. When a dog is hot, it sticks out its tongue. The baby platypus hatches from eggs. Give a general description of animals of the class Mammals.

articles about Tsaritsyn

Disputes periodically arise in discussions about the famous Serebryakov family in Tsaritsyn. A number of publications on various websites often talk about Grigory Nesterovich and Ruben Serebryakov, who owned the Nail Factory, a house on the corner of modern Komsomolskaya and Sovetskaya streets, and other houses, who built the Armenian Church on the site of the current Dynamo stadium. Questions arose some time ago and on our website .

Comparing photos and names with data from other sources, a certain confusion that exists in the history of Tsaritsyn in relation to the Serebryakov family becomes noticeable. Having analyzed the facts, I come to the conclusion that in Tsaritsyn there was two completely different Serebryakov families.

To start - the story of the death of Grigory Grigorievich Serebryakov.

Grigory Grigorievich Serebryakov

July 1910 brought grief to the large Serebryakov family. On July 2 (15), 1910, the son of Grigory Nesterovich Serebryakov, Grigory Grigorievich, died. This happened due to a diagnosis that is ridiculous for our time - inflammation of appendicitis. Newspaper “Tsaritsynsky Messenger” writes about this sad event on July 3, 1910: “Yesterday, at 2:50 a.m., after short but severe suffering, G.G. died. Serebryakov is the only son of a local businessman-breeder G.N. Serebryakova. The deceased had long suffered from appendicitis (inflammation of the appendix of the cecum), went abroad for treatment and followed a strict diet prescribed by doctors. But the disease returned. The patient stopped eating. An operation was needed. Doctor of Medicine Spasokukotsky, a surgeon, was called from Saratov. On July 2, an operation was performed to remove the appendix, which had a fatal outcome. Two hours later the patient died. The grief of the relatives is indescribable. The late G.G. was considered a specialist in his field, went to improve himself abroad in Germany and was the managing director of the Nail and Mechanical Plant of the brothers G. and A. Serebryakov. The deceased left behind a wife and young children.”.

When reading this passage, you can’t help but be amazed at the successes medicine has achieved over the 20th century. Let's try to figure it out. The article mentions (even without initials) a certain Spasokukotsky, a surgeon. Meanwhile, he was not just a surgeon, but an outstanding luminary of his time.

Sergei Ivanovich Spasokukotsky (photo 1910)

There were many doctors in Tsaritsyn, including surgeons, but the Serebryakovs could afford top-class treatment. Sergei Ivanovich Spasokukotsky at that time was the head of the surgical department of the Saratov City Hospital. He is forty years old, he is married for the second time and has a pregnant wife. Two years later, in 1912, he took the place of head of the department of hospital surgery at Saratov University. His main areas of activity are gastric surgery, gastric cancer, problems of postoperative complications, acute appendicitis, liver and biliary tract surgery. He is engaged in the newest field at that time - neurosurgery, and makes discoveries and inventions in these areas that are still used by science. In 1926, he was transferred to Moscow, to head the department of faculty surgery at the 2nd Moscow Medical Institute. N.I. Pirogova. It was he who would introduce Novocaine into widespread use. He will be one of the founders of the Central Institute of Blood Transfusion. There is a monument to him in Moscow, and streets in several cities are named after him. Apparently, the Serebryakovs invited Grigory to an outstanding, brilliant specialist who, in modern times, performed an operation that is considered one of the easiest by modern surgeons... Yes, the medicine of those years was much weaker than today. It is enough to mention the painkiller of that time - chloroform, which caused severe allergic reactions.

The death of Grigory Serebryakov was a big event for Tsaritsyn. Numerous condolences were printed: “Grigory Nesterovich and Alexandra Ivanovna Serebryakov with their grandchildren...”, “Ekaterina Ivanovna Serebryakova and children...”, “Alexander Nesterovich and Klavdiya Viktorona Serebryakov...”, “Brothers and sisters Alexander Alexandrovich and Vera Ivanovna, Natalya Alexandrovna, Antonina Alexandrovna and Georgy Alexandrovich..." - these are relatives. On the front pages of the newspapers, employees also expressed condolences: “Employees of the G. and A. Serebryakov store with deep regret inform about the death of their dear owner...”, “Employees of the confectionery factory Br. G. and A. Serebryakov...", The board of the steam mill partnership together with the employees mourned the loss of an employee and shareholder.

Grigory Nesterovich Serebryakov - father of Grigory Grigorievich

Grigory Serebryakov was buried on July 4 (17). The funeral service took place in the Church of the Transfiguration - by five priests at once (note: the funeral service took place in the Church of the Transfiguration!). At the funeral they carried wreaths from the first families of Tsaritsyn - the Klenov family, from N.I. and A.A. Lapshinykh, K.V. and A.K. Voronin and many others. Numerous factory workers followed the coffin, forming a human chain around the procession. This was no accident. The workers of Serebryakov’s enterprises were especially sad: not a single family event of theirs—a wedding, a christening, a funeral—was complete without financial assistance from the owner.

After the death of Grigory Serebryakov, the family began to have problems: in October 1910, court cases began regarding the illegality of the Serebryakovs’ construction of the Nail Factory on Gogol Street. However, if Grigory Seberbryakov had lived eight years longer, an even sadder fate would have awaited him.

But let's return to our problem. Along with the listed Serebryakovs, there was also Ruben Serebryakov, a well-known builder of the Armenian Church of St. Gregory the Illuminator in Tsaritsyn. About the founders of this church, in particular, they write: “ ...among them were the famous industrialists Serebryakovs (Artsatagortsyan). Ruben with his sons Yakov and Grigory, together with the Armenian community and a number of eminent entrepreneurs, traders and artisans - the brothers Agamyants, Odzhagov, Akhverdov, Amatuni, Tumanov, Grigoryants, Tamrazyants (almost all of them were part of the board of trustees) and others, the Serebryakovs built in 1908 year in Tsaritsyn the Armenian Church. Together with them, others subsequently took part in this good deed, becoming patrons of the church - Oganes Sarkisovich Sargoyants, Mnatsakan Miskaryants, Pogos Sarkisovich Kisteants». ( ).

Note: Ruben Serebryakov was an Armenian and built the Armenian Church in Tsaritsyn, the grand opening of which was carried out on June 8, 1908 by Archbishop Mesrop Smbatyanets.

Armenian Church of Gregory the Illuminator in Tsaritsyn. The photo was taken from a fire tower. In the distance to the right you can see the still preserved building of the distillery (then the State Wine Warehouse No. 2). The passage under the railway track has also been preserved. The site of the church is now the gates of the Dynamo stadium.

And Grigory Grigorievich was buried in the Russian Orthodox Church of the Transfiguration (despite the fact that the Church of Gregory the Illuminator had been in operation for two years already and was located about a ten-minute walk from the Church of the Transfiguration. We also note that among the numerous obituaries from relatives, neither the name of Ruben nor the name Yakov - no.

A simple conclusion follows from this: two Serebryakov families lived in Tsaritsyn - an Armenian one, headed by Ruben Serebryakov, and a Russian one, led by brothers Grigory and Alexander Nesterovich Serebryakov.

The question that now requires clarification is which of the two families owned the house on the corner of modern. Komsomolskaya and Sovetskaya streets, the building of the 83rd school and other buildings that belonged to the Serebryakovs.

Photo of Yakov Serebryakov with his daughter Sophia

(a series of interesting photos about the descendants of Ruben Serebryakov has been published in an article by Irina Arisova on our website)

Judging by the testimony of the descendants of Ruben Serebryakov (an interesting article about them -) the house on what is now Sovetskaya Street belonged to Ruben’s son Yakov. Although, of course, family legends can be wrong...

In Volgograd, there is an old urban legend about “fatal love” and the unsuccessful matchmaking of Grigory Nesterovich Serebryakov to the merchant Yulia Repnikova. Stolypin himself intervened in that matchmaking, but unsuccessfully. .

K. Raunkier's system

To classify the life forms of plants, K. Raunkier used a single feature that had great adaptive significance - the position of the renewal buds in relation to the soil surface. He first developed this system for plants in Central Europe, but then extended it to plants of all climatic zones.

Raunkier divided all plants into five types (1903), of which he later identified subtypes (1907).

1. Phanerophytes. Renewal buds or shoot tips are located more or less high in the air during unfavorable seasons and are exposed to all the vicissitudes of the weather. They are divided into 15 subtypes according to plant height, the rhythm of foliage development, the degree of bud protection, and the consistency of the stem. One of the subtypes is epiphytic phanerophytes.

2. Chamephytes. Renewal buds are at the soil surface or no higher than 20–30 cm. In winter they are covered with snow. They are divided into 4 subtypes.

3. Hemicryptophytes. Renewal buds or shoot tips on the soil surface, often covered with litter. Includes three subtypes and smaller divisions.

4. Cryptophytes. Renewal buds or shoot tips are preserved in the soil (geophytes) or under water (helophytes and hydrophytes). They are divided into 7 subtypes.

5. Therophytes. They tolerate unfavorable seasons only in seeds.

Raunkier believed that life forms develop historically as a result of plant adaptation to climatic conditions. He called the percentage distribution of species by life forms in plant communities in the study area biological spectrum. Biological spectra were compiled for different zones and countries, which could serve as climate indicators. Thus, the hot and humid climate of the tropics was called the “phanerophyte climate”, the moderately cold areas have a “hemicryptophyte climate”, and the polar countries have a “chamephyte climate”.

Critics of Raunkier's views note that his types of life forms are too extensive and heterogeneous: chamephytes include plants with different relationships to climate, there are many of them in both tundras and semi-deserts. And not only the modern climate determines the range of life forms, but also a complex of soil and lithological conditions, as well as the history of the formation of flora and the influence of human culture. Nevertheless, Raunkier's classification of life forms of plants remains popular and continues to be modified.

System of I. G. Serebryakov

The most developed classification of life forms of angiosperms and conifers based on ecological and morphological characteristics is the system of I. G. Serebryakov (1962, 1964). It is hierarchical, it uses a combination of a large number of characteristics in a subordinate system and the following units are adopted: departments, types, classes, subclasses, groups, subgroups, sometimes sections and life forms themselves. The life form itself is the basic unit of the plant ecological system.

Under life form As a unit of ecological classification, I. G. Serebryakov understands the totality of adult generative individuals of a given species in certain growing conditions, having a unique appearance, including above-ground and underground organs. They are allocated 4 departments of life forms.

1. Department A. Woody plants. Includes 3 types: trees, shrubs, shrubs.

2. Department B. Semi-woody plants. Includes 2 types - subshrubs and subshrubs.

3. Department B. Ground herbs. Includes 2 types: polycarpic and monocarpic herbs.

4. Department G. Aquatic herbs. Includes 2 types: amphibious grasses, floating and underwater grasses.

Let us consider the position of specific plants in the system of life forms of I.G. Serebryakov.

The cordate linden belongs to the department of woody plants, the crown-forming class with completely lignified elongated shoots, the terrestrial subclass, the group with underground roots, the erect subgroup, the single-stem section (forest type), and deciduous trees.

Wild strawberries belong to the department of terrestrial herbs, the polycarpic type, the class of herbaceous polycarpics with assimilating shoots of a non-succulent type, the subclass of stolon-forming and creeping, the group of stolon-forming, the subgroup of terrestrial stolon. The native life form of wild strawberry can be characterized as a short-rhizome, cluster-rooted plant with rosette shoots and above-ground stolons.

I.G. Serebryakov noted the incompleteness and incompleteness of his classification due to poor knowledge of the life forms of plants in different communities, especially tropical rain forests. The habit of tropical trees is often determined not only by the nature of the trunks and crowns, but also by the root systems, so the latter serve as an important feature in classifying the life forms of trees. Herbaceous plants have a shorter duration of above-ground axes, various rhythms of seasonal development, and different characters of above-ground and underground organs. They are often vegetatively mobile, have high seed productivity, and are better adapted than trees to colonize a wide variety of habitats, sometimes in very harsh conditions. Therefore, the diversity of life forms in terrestrial herbaceous plants is unusually great.

Diversity and variability of plant life forms. I.G. Serebryakov outlined parallel rows of life forms of angiosperms and supposed connections between them (Fig. 70). Under similar conditions, liana-shaped, cushion-shaped, creeping and succulent forms converged among both woody and herbaceous plants. For example, cushion-shaped woody and herbaceous forms are often found in conditions of good lighting, but at low air and soil temperatures, with extremely dry soil and low air humidity, with frequent and strong winds. They are common in highlands, tundras, deserts, subantarctic islands and other places with a similar set of conditions.

Rice. 70. Parallel series of life forms of angiosperms and their supposed connections (according to I. G. Serebryakov, 1955)

Similar life forms arose convergently in different systematic groups. For example, in the arid climate of deserts, the same life form of stem succulents is found in cacti in America, in euphorbias and slipweeds in Africa. Both closely related species (for example, cuffs) and species from different families can have the same life form. The life forms of loose-bush turf polycarpics with a fibrous root system include meadow fescue and meadow timothy grass (cereals), hairy grass (ruminaceae), common sedge (sedgeaceae), etc.

At the same time, one species can have different life forms. A change in life forms occurs in most plants during ontogenesis, since with growth and development the habitus sometimes changes quite significantly. In herbs, the tap root system is often replaced by a fibrous one, rosette shoots are replaced by semi-rosette ones, the caudex turns from single-headed to multi-headed, etc. Sometimes the habit of a plant naturally changes with the seasons. In coltsfoot and lungwort, elongated generative shoots with small leaves emerge from the rhizomes in unclear spring. At the end of May - beginning of June, after fruiting, they die off, and from the buds on the rhizomes of these same individuals, shortened rosette vegetative shoots with large leaves grow, photosynthesizing until autumn. In the magnificent Colchicum, every autumn the generative plant is represented by a corm and a flower extending from it, and in the spring by a leafy shoot, at the top of which a fruit capsule ripens. In such cases we can talk about pulsating life forms.

The life form of a species can vary within its range under different geographical and environmental conditions. Many tree species at the borders of their range form shrubby, often creeping forms, for example, common spruce in the Far North, Siberian spruce in the Southern Urals and the Khibiny Mountains.

Certain tree species are represented by different life forms in the same geographical areas and even in the same phytocenoses (Fig. 71). For example, linden can be represented in phytocenoses: 1) as a single-stemmed tree; 2) a coppice-forming tree; 3) a small tree with 2–3 trunks; 4) a multi-stemmed tree - the so-called bush tree; 5) clump-forming tree; 6) single-barreled butts; 7) multi-stemmed ends; 8) optional elfin wood.

In the center of the range, under optimal conditions - in Ukraine, in the Tula and Penza regions, compact life forms of linden predominate; near the north-eastern border in the Middle Urals - dwarf linden. Bush trees appear after cutting down single-trunk trees and when the main axis is damaged by frost and pests. The facultative dwarf tree is part of the undergrowth, usually confined to heavily shaded areas, slopes and ravine bottoms. When the light conditions improve, dwarf dwarf can change into a bush-like form or become a clump-forming tree. Curtain is a thicket formed from one plant. Junkies - These are oppressed low-growing plants grown with a lack of light and moisture. In young plants, the tops of the leading shoots die off, and then the lateral shoots. Having lived in this state for 20–30 years, the shoots can die off without ever emerging from the herbaceous layer; if lighting conditions improve, the shoots can form coppice trees.

Other trees - elm, maple, hornbeam, bird cherry and some shrubs - euonymus, honeysuckle, honeysuckle, hazel and others, also have a wide range of life forms. In the forests of the Far East, Schisandra chinensis grows under different environmental conditions either as a liana or as a ground shrub. In herbaceous plants, intraspecific diversity of life forms is also often observed.

Rice. 71. Variants of the life form of the heart-shaped linden (according to A. A. Chistyakova, 1978):

1 – single-trunk tree; 2 – coppice-forming tree; 3 – small-trunked; 4 – multi-barreled; 5 – clump-forming tree; 6 – single-barrel stick; 7 – multi-barrel stick; 8 – optional elfin wood

Question 3 Groups of environmental factors, factors of the abiotic and biotic environment.

Environmental factors

Habitat- this is that part of nature that surrounds a living organism and with which it directly interacts. The components and properties of the environment are diverse and changeable. Any living creature lives in a complex, changing world, constantly adapting to it and regulating its life activity in accordance with its changes.

Individual properties or elements of the environment that affect organisms are called environmental factors. Environmental factors are diverse. They can be necessary or, conversely, harmful to living beings, promote or hinder survival and reproduction. Environmental factors have different natures and specific actions. Among them are abiotic And biotic, anthropogenic.

Abiotic factors- temperature, light, radioactive radiation, pressure, air humidity, salt composition of water, wind, currents, terrain - these are all properties of inanimate nature that directly or indirectly affect living organisms.

Biotic factors- these are forms of influence of living beings on each other. Each organism constantly experiences the direct or indirect influence of other creatures, comes into contact with representatives of its own species and other species - plants, animals, microorganisms, depends on them and itself influences them. The surrounding organic world is an integral part of the environment of every living creature.

Mutual connections between organisms are the basis for the existence of biocenoses and populations; their consideration belongs to the field of syn-ecology.

Anthropogenic factors- these are forms of activity of human society that lead to changes in nature as the habitat of other species or directly affect their lives. Over the course of human history, the development of first hunting, and then agriculture, industry, and transport has greatly changed the nature of our planet. The importance of anthropogenic impacts on the entire living world of the Earth continues to grow rapidly.

Although humans influence living nature through changes in abiotic factors and biotic relationships of species, human activity on the planet should be identified as a special force that does not fit into the framework of this classification. Currently, the fate of the living surface of the Earth, all types of organisms, is in the hands of human society and depends on the anthropogenic influence on nature.

The same environmental factor has different significance in the life of co-living organisms of different species. For example, strong winds in winter are unfavorable for large, open-living animals, but have no effect on smaller ones that hide in burrows or under the snow. The salt composition of the soil is important for plant nutrition, but is indifferent to most terrestrial animals, etc.

Changes in environmental factors over time can be: 1) regularly periodic, changing the strength of the impact in connection with the time of day, or the season of the year, or the rhythm of the tides in the ocean; 2) irregular, without a clear periodicity, for example, changes in weather conditions in different years, catastrophic phenomena - storms, showers, landslides, etc.; 3) directed over certain, sometimes long, periods of time, for example, during cooling or warming of the climate, overgrowing of water bodies, constant grazing of livestock in the same area, etc.

Among environmental factors, resources and conditions are distinguished. Resources organisms use and consume the environment, thereby reducing their number. Resources include food, water when it is scarce, shelters, convenient places for reproduction, etc. Conditions - these are factors to which organisms are forced to adapt, but usually cannot influence them. The same environmental factor can be a resource for some and a condition for other species. For example, light is a vital energy resource for plants, and for animals with vision it is a condition for visual orientation. Water can be both a living condition and a resource for many organisms.

Question 5 What processes are understood by the phenological development of woody plants, their phenological biorhythm, biological clock, cycles of vegetation and dormancy, cycles of vegetative and generative development

To classify the life forms of plants, he used a single feature that has great adaptive significance - the position of the renewal buds in relation to the soil surface. He first developed this system for plants in Central Europe, but then extended it to plants of all climatic zones.

Raunkier divided all plants into five types (1903), of which he later identified subtypes (1907).

2. Chamephytes. Renewal buds are at the soil surface or no higher than 20-30 cm. In winter they are covered with snow. They are divided into 4 subtypes.

3. Hemicryptophytes. Renewal buds or shoot tips on the soil surface, often covered with litter. Includes three subtypes and smaller divisions.

4. Cryptophytes. Renewal buds or shoot tips are preserved in the soil (geophytes) or under water (helophytes and hydrophytes). They are divided into 7 subtypes.

5. Therophytes. They tolerate unfavorable seasons only in seeds.

They allocated 4 departments of life forms:

1. Department A. Woody plants. Includes 3 types: trees, shrubs, shrubs.

2. Department B. Semi-woody plants. Includes 2 types - subshrubs and subshrubs.

3. Department B. Ground herbs. Includes 2 types: polycarpic and monocarpic herbs.

4. Department G. Aquatic herbs. Includes 2 types: amphibious grasses, floating and underwater grasses.

Let us consider the position of specific plants in the system of life forms of I.G. Serebryakov.

Diversity and variability of plant life forms.

I.G. Serebryakov outlined parallel rows of life forms of angiosperms and supposed connections between them (Fig. 2). Under similar conditions, liana-shaped, cushion-shaped, creeping and succulent forms converged among both woody and herbaceous plants. For example, cushion-shaped woody and herbaceous forms are often found in conditions of good lighting, but at low air and soil temperatures, with extremely dry soil and low air humidity, with frequent and strong winds. They are common in highlands, tundras, deserts, subantarctic islands and other places with a similar set of conditions.

Rice. 2. Parallel series of life forms of angiosperms and their supposed connections (according to I. G. Serebryakov, 1955)

At the end of May - beginning of June, after fruiting, they die off, and from the buds on the rhizomes of these same individuals, shortened rosette vegetative shoots with large leaves grow, photosynthesizing until autumn. In the magnificent Colchicum, every autumn the generative plant is represented by a corm and a flower extending from it, and in the spring by a leafy shoot, at the top of which the fruit capsule ripens. In such cases we can talk about pulsating life forms.

Certain tree species are represented by different life forms in the same geographical areas and even in the same phytocenoses (Fig. 3).

For example, linden can be represented in phytocenoses:

1) single-trunk tree;

2) a coppice-forming tree;

3) a small tree with 2-3 trunks;

4) a multi-stemmed tree - the so-called bush tree;

5) clump-forming tree;

6) single-barreled butts;

7) multi-stemmed ends;

8) optional elfin wood.

In the center of the range, under optimal conditions - in Ukraine, in the Tula and Penza regions, compact life forms of linden predominate; dwarf linden forms predominate near the northeastern border in the Middle Urals. Bush trees appear after cutting down single-trunk trees and when the main axis is damaged by frost and pests. The facultative dwarf tree is part of the undergrowth, usually confined to heavily shaded areas, slopes and ravine bottoms. When the light conditions improve, dwarf dwarf can change into a bush-like form or become a clump-forming tree. Curtain is a thicket formed from one plant. Junkies - These are oppressed low-growing plants grown with a lack of light and moisture. In young plants, the tops of the leading shoots die off, and then the lateral shoots. Having lived in this state for 20-30 years, the shoots can die off without ever emerging from the grass layer; if lighting conditions improve, the shoots can form coppice trees.

Fig.3. Variants of the life form of the heart-shaped linden (according to A. A. Chistyakova, 1978):

1 - single-trunk tree; 2 - sprout-forming tree; 3 - small-barreled; 4 - multi-barreled; 5 - clump-forming tree; 6 - single-barrel stick; 7 - multi-barrel stick; 8 - optional elfin wood

Ecological groups of plants in relation to water

Hydatophytes are aquatic plants that are entirely or almost entirely submerged in water. Among them are flowering plants that have secondarily switched to an aquatic lifestyle (elodea, pondweed, water buttercups, vallisneria, urut, etc.). When taken out of the water, these plants quickly dry out and die. They have reduced stomata and no cuticle. There is no transpiration in such plants, and water is released through special cells - hydathodes.

Rice. 4. Cross section of the stem of Myriophyllum verticillatum (according to T.K. Goryshina, 1979)

The leaf blades of hydatophytes are, as a rule, thin, without mesophyll differentiation, and often dissected, which contributes to a more complete use of sunlight weakened in water and the absorption of CO 2. Variation of leaves is often expressed - heterophylly; many species have floating leaves that have a light structure. Shoots supported by water often do not have mechanical tissues; aerenchyma is well developed in them (Fig. 4).

The root system of flowering hydatophytes is greatly reduced, sometimes completely absent or has lost its main functions (in duckweeds). Absorption of water and mineral salts occurs over the entire surface of the body. Flowering shoots, as a rule, carry flowers above the water (less often pollination occurs in water), and after pollination the shoots can submerge again, and fruit ripening occurs under water (vallisneria, elodea, pondweed, etc.).

Hydrophytes- these are terrestrial-aquatic plants, partially submerged in water, growing along the banks of reservoirs, in shallow waters, and in swamps. They are found in areas with a wide variety of climatic conditions. These include common reed, plantain chastuha, three-leafed algae, marsh marigold and other species. They have better developed conductive and mechanical tissues than hydatophytes. Aerenchyma is well expressed. In arid regions with strong insolation, their leaves have a light structure. Hydrophytes have an epidermis with stomata, the rate of transpiration is very high, and they can only grow with constant intensive absorption of water.

Hygrophytes- terrestrial plants that live in conditions of high air humidity and often on wet soils. Among them there are shadow and light. Shade hygrophytes are plants of the lower tiers of damp forests in different climatic zones (impatiens, alpine circe, thistle, many tropical herbs, etc.). Due to high air humidity, transpiration may be difficult for them, so to improve water metabolism, hydathodes, or water stomata, secrete droplet-liquid water, develop on the leaves. The leaves are often thin, with a shadowy structure, with a poorly developed cuticle, and contain a lot of free and poorly bound water. The water content of tissues reaches 80% or more. When even a short and mild drought occurs, a negative water balance is created in the tissues, the plants wither and may die.

Light hygrophytes include species of open habitats that grow on constantly moist soils and in humid air (papyrus, rice, heartwood, marsh bedstraw, sundew, etc.). Transition groups - mesohygrophytes And hygromesophytes.

Mesophytes can tolerate short and not very severe drought. These are plants that grow with average moisture, moderately warm conditions and a fairly good supply of mineral nutrition. Mesophytes include evergreen trees of the upper tiers of tropical forests, deciduous trees of savannas, tree species of moist evergreen subtropical forests, summer-green deciduous species of temperate forests, undergrowth shrubs, herbaceous plants of oak broad grasses, plants of flooded and not too dry upland meadows, desert ephemerals and ephemeroids , many weeds and most cultivated plants. From the above list it is clear that the group of mesophytes is very extensive and heterogeneous. In terms of their ability to regulate their water metabolism, some are close to hygrophytes (mesohygrophytes), others - to drought-resistant forms (mesoxerophytes).

Xerophytes grow in places with insufficient moisture and have adaptations that allow them to obtain water when there is a shortage of it, limit the evaporation of water, or store it during drought. Xerophytes are better able to regulate water metabolism than all other plants, and therefore remain active during prolonged drought. These are plants of deserts, steppes, hard-leaved evergreen forests and bush thickets, sand dunes.

Xerophytes are divided into two main types: succulents and sclerophytes

Succulents are succulent plants with highly developed water-storing parenchyma in various organs. Stem succulents - cacti, slipweeds, cactus-like euphorbias; leaf succulents - aloe, agaves, mesembryanthemums, juveniles, sedums; root succulents - asparagus. In the deserts of Central America and South Africa, succulents can define the landscape.

The leaves, and in the case of their reduction, the stems of succulents, have a thick cuticle, often a thick waxy coating or dense pubescence. The stomata are submerged and open into a gap where water vapor is retained.

They are closed during the day. This helps succulents conserve accumulated moisture, but it worsens gas exchange and makes it difficult for CO 2 to enter the plant. Therefore, many succulents from the families of lilies, bromeliads, cacti, and crassulaceae absorb CO 2 at night with open stomata, which is processed only the next day in the process of photosynthesis. Absorbed CO 2 is converted to malate. In addition, when breathing at night, carbohydrates are decomposed not into carbon dioxide, but into organic acids, which are released into cell sap.

During the day, in the light, malate and other organic acids are broken down to release CO 2, which is used in the process of photosynthesis. Thus, large vacuoles with cell sap store not only water, but also CO 2. Since succulents fix carbon dioxide at night and process it during the day during photosynthesis are separated in time, they provide themselves with carbon without running the risk of excessive water loss, but the scale of carbon dioxide intake with this method is small, and succulents grow slowly.

The osmotic pressure of the cell sap of succulents is low - only 3 10 5 - 8 10 5 Pa (3-8 atm), they develop a small suction force and are able to absorb water only from atmospheric precipitation that has seeped into the top layer of soil. Their root system is shallow, but widely spread, which is especially characteristic of cacti.

Sclerophytes- these are plants, on the contrary, dry in appearance, often with narrow and small leaves, sometimes rolled into a tube. The leaves may also be dissected, covered with hairs or a waxy coating. Sclerenchyma is well developed, so plants can lose up to 25% of moisture without wilting without harmful consequences. Bound water predominates in cells. The suction power of the roots is up to several tens of atmospheres, which allows you to successfully extract water from the soil. With a lack of water, transpiration is sharply reduced. Sclerophytes can be divided into two groups: euxerophytes and stypaxerophytes.

TO euxerophytes These include many steppe plants with rosette and semi-rosette, highly pubescent shoots, subshrubs, some grasses, cold wormwood, edelweiss edelweiss, etc. These plants create the greatest biomass during a period favorable for the growing season, and in the heat their level of metabolic processes is very low.

Stypaxerophytes is a group of narrow-leaved turf grasses (feather grass, thin-legged grass, fescue, etc.). They are characterized by low transpiration during dry periods and can tolerate particularly severe tissue dehydration. The leaves, rolled into a tube, have a moist chamber inside. Transpiration occurs through stomata embedded in grooves into this chamber, which reduces moisture loss.

In addition to the named ecological groups of plants, a number of mixed or intermediate types are also distinguished.

Various ways of regulating water exchange allowed plants to populate land areas with different ecological conditions. The diversity of adaptations thus underlies the spread of plants across the surface of the earth, where moisture deficiency is one of the main problems of ecological adaptation.

Temperature limits for the existence of species

On average, the active life of organisms requires a fairly narrow range of temperatures, limited by the critical thresholds of water freezing and thermal denaturation of proteins, approximately within the range from 0 to +50 °C. The boundaries of optimal temperatures should accordingly be even narrower. However, in reality these boundaries are overcome in nature in many species due to specific adaptations. There are ecological groups of organisms whose optimum is shifted towards low or high temperatures.

Cryophiles- species that prefer cold and are specialized to live in these conditions. Over 80% of the earth's biosphere belongs to constantly cold areas with temperatures below +5 °C - these are the depths of the World Ocean, Arctic and Antarctic deserts, tundras, and highlands. The species living here have increased cold resistance. The main mechanisms of these adaptations are biochemical. Enzymes of cold-loving organisms have structural features that allow them to effectively reduce the activation energy of molecules and maintain cellular metabolism at temperatures close to 0 °C. Mechanisms that prevent ice formation inside cells also play an important role. In this case, two main ways are implemented - resistance to freezing (resistance) and resistance to freezing (tolerance).

The biochemical way of resisting freezing is the accumulation in cells of macromolecular substances - antifreeze, which lower the freezing point of body fluids and prevent the formation of ice crystals in the body. This type of cold adaptation has been found, for example, in Antarctic fish of the nototheniaceae family, which live at a body temperature of -1.86 °C, swimming under the surface of solid ice in water with the same temperature. The small cod fish in the Arctic Ocean swims in waters with temperatures no higher than +5 °C, and spawns in winter in supercooled waters off the coast. Deep-sea fish in the polar regions are constantly in a supercooled state.

The maximum temperature at which cell activity is still possible has been recorded for microorganisms. In refrigerated rooms, meat products can be spoiled due to the activity of bacteria at temperatures down to -10-12 °C. Below these temperatures, growth and development of single-celled organisms does not occur.

Another way of cold resistance is tolerance to freezing - associated with a temporary cessation of the active state (hypobiosis or cryptobiosis).

The formation of ice crystals inside cells irreversibly disrupts their ultrastructure and leads to death. But many cryophiles are able to tolerate ice formation in extracellular fluids. This process leads to partial dehydration of cells, which increases their stability. In insects, the accumulation of protective organic substances, such as glycerol, sorbitol, mannitol and others, prevents the crystallization of intracellular solutions and allows them to survive critical frosty periods in a state of torpor.

Thus, ground beetles in the tundra can withstand hypothermia down to -35 °C, accumulating up to 25% glycerol by winter and reducing the water content in the body from 65 to 54%. In summer, glycerol is not found in their body. Some insects survive winter down to -47 and even -50 °C with freezing of extracellular, but not intracellular, moisture. Marine inhabitants practically do not encounter temperatures below -2 °C, but invertebrates of the intertidal zone (molluscs, barnacles, etc.) in winter at low tide endure freezing down to - (15-20) °C. The cells look wrinkled under a microscope, but no ice crystals are found in them. Resistance to freezing can also manifest itself in eurythermal species, the optimal development temperatures of which are far from 0 °C.

Thermophiles- this is an ecological group of species whose optimal life activity is confined to the region of high temperatures. Thermophilia is characteristic of many representatives of microorganisms, plants and animals found in hot springs, on the surface of heated soils, in decomposing organic residues during their self-heating, etc.

The upper temperature limits of active life differ among different groups of organisms. The most resistant bacteria. In one of the types of archaebacteria, common at depths around thermal springs (“smokers”), the ability to grow and divide cells at temperatures exceeding +110 ° C was experimentally discovered. Some bacteria that oxidize sulfur, such as Sulfolobus acidocaldarius, multiply at +(85-90)°C. The ability of a number of species to grow in almost boiling water has even been discovered. Naturally, not all bacteria are active at such high temperatures, but the diversity of such species is quite large.

The upper temperature thresholds for the development of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and other photosynthetic prokaryotes lie in the lower range from +70 to +73 °C. Thermophiles growing at +(60-75) °C are found among both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, spore-forming, lactic acid, actinomycetes, methane-forming, etc. In an inactive state, spore-forming bacteria can withstand up to +200 °C for tens of minutes, which demonstrates the mode of sterilization of objects in autoclaves.

The thermal stability of bacterial proteins is created due to a significant number of small changes in their primary structure and additional weak bonds that determine the folding of molecules. The content of guanine and cytosine is increased in transport and ribosomal RNA of thermophiles. This base pair is more thermostable than the adenine-uracil pair.

Thus, temperature stability exceeding the average norm occurs mainly due to biochemical adaptations.

Among eukaryotic organisms - fungi, protozoa, plants and animals - there are also thermophiles, but their level of tolerance to high temperatures is lower than that of bacteria. The growth limits of mushroom mycelium are +(60-62) °C. Dozens of species are known that can be active at +50 °C and above in habitats such as composts, haystacks, stored grain, heated soil, landfills, etc. Protozoa - amoebas and ciliates, unicellular algae can multiply to temperatures of + (54-56) °C Higher plants can tolerate short-term heating up to +(50-60) °C, but active photosynthesis even in desert species is inhibited by temperatures exceeding +40 °C.

Thus, in Sudan grass cells at +48 °C, the movement of the cytoplasm stops after 5 minutes. Critical body temperatures of some animals, for example desert lizards, can reach +(48-49) °C, but for most species body temperatures exceeding +(43-44) °C are incompatible with life due to mismatch of physiological processes and protein coagulation collagen. Thus, as the organization of living beings becomes more complex, their ability to be active at high temperatures decreases.

Narrow specialization and latent states greatly expand the boundaries of life in relation to individual environmental factors. If the average temperature limits of organism activity are characterized by a range from 0 to +(40-45) °C, then specialized species (cryophiles and thermophiles) expand it more than twice (from -10 to approximately +110 °C), and in a state of cryptobiosis and In suspended animation, some life forms are able to withstand temperatures close to absolute zero or well above the boiling point of species.

WITH Erebryakov Nikolai Gavrilovich - commander of the 5th separate high-speed bomber aviation regiment of the Murmansk Air Force group of the 14th Army, major.
Born on May 21, 1913 in the village of Pukovoy, now Aleksinsky district, Tula region, into a peasant family. Russian. Graduated from high school. He worked as a mechanic at a weapons factory in Tula. In 1932 he graduated from the Osoaviakhim aviation school of pilots.
In the Red Army since April 1932. In 1933 he graduated from the 2nd Red Banner Military Pilot School in the city of Borisoglebsk. He commanded an air squadron of the attack aviation squadron of the 253rd attack air brigade.
In 1937-1938, N.G. Serebryakov participated in the national revolutionary war in Spain of 1936-1939. He flew on the SB bomber. Flew 113 combat missions.
Since September 1939 - commander of the 5th separate mixed (at the beginning of 1940 renamed high-speed) bomber aviation regiment of the Air Force of the Leningrad Military District.
During the Soviet-Finnish War, the 5th high-speed bomber air regiment of the Murmansk Air Force group of the 14th Army under the command of Major N.G. Serebryakov, by mid-March 1940, made 567 sorties to bomb targets deep behind enemy lines, inflicting heavy damage on him in manpower and military equipment. The regiment's pilots shot down 5 enemy aircraft. Regiment commander Major N.G. Serebryakov completed 7 combat missions. The regiment was awarded the Order of the Red Banner.
"Z and exemplary fulfillment of command assignments on the front of the fight against the Finnish White Guard and the courage and heroism shown" by Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR to Major Serebryakov Nikolai Gavrilovich awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union with the Order of Lenin and the Gold Star medal.
Member of the CPSU(b) since 1940.
Major N.G. Serebryakov participated in the Great Patriotic War from June 1941. From June 1941, he commanded the 58th Bomber Aviation Regiment (then a dive bomber regiment) on the Northern, Leningrad and Northwestern fronts. From July 1942 - deputy commander of the 285th Bomber Aviation Division on the Kalinin, Western, from December 1942 - Stalingrad, from April 1943 - on the North Caucasus front. In 1943 he graduated from the Advanced Courses for Command Staff at the Air Force Academy named after. Zhukovsky.
Since January 1944 - assistant and senior assistant to the inspector general for bomber aviation of the General Staff of the Red Army Air Force. He flew into the active army, provided practical assistance in mastering new equipment and improving its use in combat conditions. He took part in the Belarusian and Lvov-Sandomierz offensive operations. where he personally led groups of young pilots into battle, completing 8 combat missions. To Victory Colonel N.G. Serebryakov completed 73 combat missions. In just three wars he completed 183 combat missions.
He continued to serve in the Soviet Army. In 1952 he graduated from the Higher Military Academy named after K.E. Voroshilov. In 1953, Aviation Major General Serebryakov was a member of the USSR Ministry of Defense commission to audit the Air Force of the Moscow Military District from the Air Force General Staff. The commission was appointed in connection with the arrest of the commander of the Moscow Military Air Force, Lieutenant General of Aviation V.I. Stalin. The commander of an aviation division, aviation corps, served at the headquarters of Long-Range Aviation. Since 1973, Lieutenant General of Aviation Serebryakov has been in the reserve.
Lived in the hero city of Moscow. Died July 3, 1988. He was buried in Moscow at the Kuntsevo cemetery (section 9-2).
Lieutenant General of Aviation (02/18/1958). Awarded 2 Orders of Lenin (7.05.1940, ...), 4 Orders of the Red Banner (1938, 16.07.1942, 31.07.1942, ...), Order of Alexander Nevsky (2.06.1945), 2 Orders of the 1st Patriotic War degrees (07/26/1943, 03/11/1985), Order of the Red Banner of Labor, 3 Orders of the Red Star (02/22/1939, ...), medals “For the Defense of Leningrad” (1943), “For the Defense of Stalingrad” (1943), “ For the defense of the Caucasus" (1943), other medals.
The biography was supplemented by Anton Bocharov (Koltsovo village, Novosibirsk region).