Which English scientist discovered the law of physics. Newton's history

Isaac Newton - a talented English physicist, a famous mathematician, a famous astronomer and a genius in mechanics, one of the legendary creators of basic, classical physics, an honorary member and then president of the Royal Society of London.

Biography

Childhood

Father - Isaac Newton, a wealthy farmer who died before his son was born. Mother - Anna Ayscough, after the death of her husband, she remarried and abandoned raising her son. The future scientist was born so sickly that his relatives believed that he would not survive, but Isaac lived to a ripe old age. Anna had three more children, but from her second marriage. Isaac was cared for exclusively by her brother, William Ayscough.

Education

While studying at school in Grantham, Newton discovered extraordinary abilities that were noticed by teachers. His mother took him out of school, trying to make him a farmer, but her attempts were in vain. Under pressure from her brother and teachers, Anna allowed Isaac to finish school. After this, he successfully entered Trinity College at the University of Cambridge.

Life path

While studying in college, Newton tries to solve scientific point vision of those phenomena in the surrounding world that have not been explained. He is seriously interested in mathematics and at the age of 21 he can derive the binomial expansion of an arbitrary rational exponent and receive a bachelor's degree.

In 1665, a plague is declared in England. The quarantine lasted two years, and Newton, leaving college, devoted himself entirely to science. During these years, the famous law of universal gravitation was discovered, which is associated with the legend of an apple falling on a physicist’s head. When the plague subsided, Isaac returned to Cambridge, where he received his master's degree. Continuing his mathematical research, he became a professor of mathematics at college. During these years, he studied optics and created a reflecting telescope, which gained wide popularity, as it allowed him to calculate more exact time on celestial bodies and helped sailors in navigation. It was this invention that became Newton’s ticket to the Royal Society, of which he was elected an honorary member.

Newton corresponds with Leibniz, argues with the great minds of the time about the nature of light. In 1677, a fire broke out in Newton's house, destroying part of the physicist's scientific works. In 1679, the scientist’s mother died after an illness.

Newton was able to summarize his scientific research in the book “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy,” in which he explained the basic concepts of mechanics, introduced new physical quantities (mass, momentum, external force), formulated the laws of mechanics, drew a conclusion from the law of gravity for Kepler’s laws, described parabolic and hyperbolic orbits of celestial bodies and expressed his views on the heliocentric system of Copernicus.

Isaac Newton also took part in public life England: in 1689 he was elected to Parliament. The beginning of the 90s was marked by a serious illness, general fatigue and a break in scientific activity.

In 1696, he became superintendent of the London Mint, and from 1699, its manager. In this position, Newton did a lot of useful things for the state: he initiated monetary reform and actively fought against counterfeiters.

In 1703, Newton became president of the Royal Society, being by that time already a recognized and respected scientist. He publishes Optics, becomes a knight, and continues his scientific research. Shortly before his death, he becomes involved in a money scam and loses most of his fortune.

Personal life

Newton left no descendants because he never married: everything was his free time he devoted himself to science, and his ordinary, gray appearance made him inconspicuous to women. Biographers mention only one sympathy that flashed in Newton’s youth: while studying at Grantham, he was in love with Miss Storey, his peer, with whom he maintained warm, friendly relations till the end of one's days.

Death

Newton spent his last years in Kensington, where he died in his sleep on March 31, 1727. The scientist was buried in Westminster Abbey.

Newton's Major Achievements

Newton is the founder of mechanics, an important branch of physics.
He owns three laws, named after him.
Discovered the law of universal gravitation.
Decomposed sunlight into a spectrum and back.
He became the author of the popular corpuscular theory of light.
Discovered Newton's rings by studying the interference of light.
In mathematics, Newton became the founder of integral calculus.
The author of the binomial, which also bears his name.
Built a reflecting telescope.
Explained from a scientific point of view the movement of the Moon around the Earth and the planets around the Sun.

Important dates in Newton's biography

1643 - birth
1655–1661 - training at Grantham school
1661 - studies at Trinity College at the University of Cambridge
1664 - discovery of the binomial, bachelor's degree
1665–1667 - “plague years”, discovery of the law of universal gravitation
1668 - master's degree
1669 - Professor of Mathematics at College
1672 - Member of the Royal Society of London
1677 - fire in Newton's house
1679 - death of mother
1687 - “Mathematical principles of natural philosophy”
1689 - election to parliament
1691–1693 - illness
1696 - Warden of the Mint
1699 - manager of the Mint
1703 - President of the Royal Society of London
1704 - “Optics”
1705 - knighthood
1727 - death

It was Newton who decomposed the rainbow into seven colors. Moreover, initially he lost sight of orange and blue, but then he equalized the number of shades with the number of basic tones in the musical scale.
The great scientist was not afraid to experiment on himself. Proving that a person sees the world around him as a result of light pressure on the retina, Newton pressed a thin probe onto the bottom of his eyeball, almost losing his eye. Fortunately, the eye remained unharmed, and the multi-colored circles that the physicist saw proved the hypothesis he had put forward.
Newton was respected and was an honorary member of the English House of Lords for many years. He never missed meetings, but he never spoke at them either. When the third year of this social service began, Isaac Newton suddenly stood up and asked to speak. Everyone was amazed - dead silence reigned in the room. And the physicist, in a tired voice, asked only to close the window.
Newton's absent-mindedness is equaled only by Albert Einstein. One day he decided to boil himself an egg, but instead put his pocket watch in boiling water. Moreover, the physicist noticed the error only after 2 minutes, when it was necessary to pull out the “egg”.
Newton owns one of the prophecies about the second coming of Christ: he called the year 2060.

The great English physicist, mathematician and astronomer. The author of the fundamental work “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” (lat. Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica), in which he described the law of universal gravitation and the so-called Newton’s Laws, which laid the foundations of classical mechanics. He developed differential and integral calculus, color theory and many other mathematical and physical theories.

Isaac Newton, the son of a small but prosperous farmer, was born in the village of Woolsthorpe (Lincolnshire), in the year of Galileo's death and on the eve of civil war. Newton's father did not live to see his son born. The boy was born sickly, prematurely, but still survived and lived for 84 years. Newton considered the fact of being born on Christmas a special sign of fate.

The boy's patron was his maternal uncle, William Ayscough. After graduating from school (1661), Newton entered Trinity College (College of the Holy Trinity) at the University of Cambridge. Even then, his powerful character took shape - scientific meticulousness, the desire to get to the bottom of things, intolerance to deception and oppression, indifference to public fame. As a child, Newton, according to contemporaries, was withdrawn and isolated, loved to read and make technical toys: a clock, a mill, etc.

Apparently, the scientific support and inspiration for Newton’s work were largely the physicists: Galileo, Descartes and Kepler. Newton completed their work by combining them into a universal system of the world. Other mathematicians and physicists had a lesser but significant influence: Euclid, Fermat, Huygens, Mercator, Wallis. Of course, the enormous influence of his immediate teacher Barrow cannot be underestimated.

It seems that Newton made a significant part of his mathematical discoveries while still a student, during the “plague years” of 1664-1666. At the age of 23, he was already fluent in the methods of differential and integral calculus, including series expansion of functions and what was later called the Newton-Leibniz formula. At the same time, according to him, he discovered the law of universal gravitation, or rather, he became convinced that this law follows from Kepler’s third law. In addition, during these years Newton proved that white color is a mixture of colors, derived the formula of “Newton’s binomial” for an arbitrary rational exponent (including negative ones), etc.

1667: The plague subsides and Newton returns to Cambridge. Elected a fellow of Trinity College, and in 1668 he became a master.

In 1669, Newton was elected professor of mathematics, Barrow's successor. Barrow forwarded to London Newton's "Analysis by Equations of Infinite Number of Terms," which contained a condensed summary of some of his most important discoveries in analysis. It gained some fame in England and abroad. Newton is preparing a complete version of this work, but is still unable to find a publisher. It was published only in 1711.

Experiments in optics and color theory continue. Newton studies spherical and chromatic aberration. To reduce them to a minimum, he builds a mixed reflecting telescope (lens and concave spherical mirror, which he polishes himself). He is seriously interested in alchemy and conducts a lot of chemical experiments.

1672: Demonstration of the reflector in London - universally rave reviews. Newton becomes famous and is elected a member of the Royal Society (British Academy of Sciences). Later, improved reflectors of this design became the main tools of astronomers, with their help other galaxies, red shifts, etc. were discovered.

A controversy breaks out over the nature of light with Hooke, Huygens and others. Newton makes a vow for the future: not to get involved in scientific disputes.

1680: Newton receives a letter from Hooke with the formulation of the law of universal gravitation, which, according to the former, served as the reason for his work on determining planetary motions (though then postponed for some time), which formed the subject of the Principia. Subsequently, Newton, for some reason, perhaps suspecting Hooke of illegally borrowing some earlier results of Newton himself, does not want to recognize any of Hooke’s merits here, but then agrees to do so, although rather reluctantly and not completely.

1684-1686: work on “Mathematical principles of natural philosophy” (the entire three-volume work was published in 1687). The Cartesians gained worldwide fame and fierce criticism: the law of universal gravitation introduces long-range action that is incompatible with the principles of Descartes.

1696: By royal decree, Newton was appointed Warden of the Mint (from 1699 - Director). He vigorously pursues monetary reform, restoring confidence in the British monetary system, which had been thoroughly neglected by his predecessors.

1699: the beginning of an open priority dispute with Leibniz, in which even the reigning persons were involved. This absurd quarrel between two geniuses cost science dearly - the English mathematical school soon withered for a whole century, and the European school ignored many of Newton’s outstanding ideas, rediscovering them much later. On the continent, Newton was accused of stealing the results of Hooke, Leibniz and the astronomer Flamsteed, as well as of heresy. Even the death of Leibniz (1716) did not extinguish the conflict.

1703: Newton is elected president of the Royal Society, which he rules for twenty years.

1705: Queen Anne knights Newton. From now on he is Sir Isaac Newton. For the first time in English history, the title of knight was awarded for scientific merit.

Newton devoted the last years of his life to writing the Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms, which he worked on for about 40 years, and preparing the third edition of the Elements.

In 1725, Newton's health began to deteriorate noticeably (stone disease), and he moved to Kensington near London, where he died at night, in his sleep, on March 20 (31), 1727.

The inscription on his grave reads:

Here lies Sir Isaac Newton, the nobleman who, with an almost divine mind, was the first to prove with the torch of mathematics the motion of the planets, the paths of comets, and the tides of the oceans.

He investigated the difference in light rays and the various properties of colors that appeared at the same time, which no one had previously suspected. A diligent, wise and faithful interpreter of nature, antiquity and Holy Scripture, he affirmed with his philosophy the greatness of Almighty God, and with his disposition he expressed evangelical simplicity.

Let mortals rejoice that such an adornment of the human race existed.

Named after Newton:

craters on the Moon and Mars;

SI unit of force.

The statue erected to Newton in 1755 at Trinity College bears the following verses from Lucretius:

Qui genus humanum ingenio superavit (He was superior to the human race in intelligence)

Scientific activity

A new era in physics and mathematics is associated with Newton's work. In mathematics there are powerful analytical methods, there is an outbreak in the development of analysis and mathematical physics. In physics, the main method of studying nature is the construction of adequate mathematical models of natural processes and intensive research of these models with the systematic use of the full power of the new mathematical apparatus. Subsequent centuries have proven the exceptional fruitfulness of this approach.

According to A. Einstein, “Newton was the first who tried to formulate elementary laws that determine the time course of a wide class of processes in nature with high degree completeness and accuracy" and "... had with his works a deep and strong influence on the entire worldview as a whole."

Mathematical analysis

Newton developed differential and integral calculus simultaneously with G. Leibniz (a little earlier) and independently of him.

Before Newton, operations with infinitesimals were not linked into a unified theory and were in the nature of isolated ingenious techniques (see Method of Indivisibles), at least there was no published systematic formulation and the power of analytical techniques for solving such problems was not sufficiently revealed. complex tasks, as problems of celestial mechanics in their entirety. The creation of mathematical analysis reduces the solution of relevant problems, to a large extent, to a technical level. A complex of concepts, operations and symbols appeared, which became the starting point further development mathematics. The next century, the 18th century, was a century of rapid and extremely successful development of analytical methods.

Apparently, Newton came to the idea of analysis through difference methods, which he studied extensively and deeply. True, in his “Principles” Newton almost did not use infinitesimals, adhering to ancient (geometric) methods of proof, but in other works he used them freely.

The starting point for differential and integral calculus were the works of Cavalieri and especially Fermat, who already knew how (for algebraic curves) to draw tangents, find extrema, inflection points and curvature of a curve, and calculate the area of its segment. Among other predecessors, Newton himself named Wallis, Barrow and the Scottish astronomer James Gregory. There was no concept of a function yet; he interpreted all curves kinematically as trajectories of a moving point.

Already as a student, Newton realized that differentiation and integration are mutually inverse operations (apparently, the first published work containing this result in the form of a detailed analysis of the duality of the area problem and the tangent problem belongs to Newton's teacher Barrow).

For almost 30 years Newton did not bother to publish his version of the analysis, although in letters (in particular to Leibniz) he willingly shared much of what he had achieved. Meanwhile, Leibniz's version had been spreading widely and openly throughout Europe since 1676. Only in 1693 did the first presentation of Newton's version appear - in the form of an appendix to Wallis's Treatise on Algebra. We have to admit that Newton’s terminology and symbolism are rather clumsy in comparison with Leibniz’s: fluxion (derivative), fluenta (antiderivative), moment of magnitude (differential), etc. Only Newton’s notation “o” for an infinitesimal dt has been preserved in mathematics (however , this letter was used earlier by Gregory in the same sense), and even a dot above the letter as a symbol of the derivative with respect to time.

Newton published a fairly complete statement of the principles of analysis only in the work “On the Quadrature of Curves” (1704), an appendix to his monograph “Optics”. Almost all of the material presented was ready back in the 1670-1680s, but only now Gregory and Halley persuaded Newton to publish the work, which, 40 years late, became Newton’s first printed work on analysis. Here, Newton introduced derivatives of higher orders, found the values of the integrals of various rational and irrational functions, and gave examples of solutions differential equations 1st order.

1711: "Analysis by Equations with an Infinite Number of Terms" is finally published, after 40 years. Newton explores both algebraic and “mechanical” curves (cycloid, quadratrix) with equal ease. Partial derivatives appear, but for some reason there is no rule for differentiating a fraction and a complex function, although Newton knew them; however, Leibniz had already published them at that time.

In the same year, “The Method of Differences” was published, where Newton proposed an interpolation formula for drawing through (n + 1) given points with equally spaced or unequally spaced abscissas of a parabolic curve of the nth order. This is a difference analogue of Taylor's formula.

1736: The final work, “The Method of Fluxions and Infinite Series,” is published posthumously, significantly advanced compared to “Analysis by Equations.” Numerous examples are given of finding extrema, tangents and normals, calculating radii and centers of curvature in Cartesian and polar coordinates, finding inflection points, etc. In the same work, quadratures and straightenings of various curves were performed.

It should be noted that Newton not only developed the analysis quite fully, but also made an attempt to strictly substantiate its principles. If Leibniz was inclined to the idea of actual infinitesimals, then Newton proposed (in the Principia) a general theory of passage to limits, which he somewhat floridly called the “method of first and last relations.” The modern term “limes” is used, although there is no clear description of the essence of this term, implying an intuitive understanding.

The theory of limits is set out in 11 lemmas in Book I of the Elements; one lemma is also in book II. There is no arithmetic of limits, there is no proof of the uniqueness of the limit, and its connection with infinitesimals has not been revealed. However, Newton rightly points out the greater rigor of this approach compared to the “rough” method of indivisibles.

Nevertheless, in Book II, by introducing moments (differentials), Newton again confuses the matter, in fact considering them as actual infinitesimals.

Other mathematical achievements

Newton made his first mathematical discoveries back in his student years: the classification of algebraic curves of the 3rd order (curves of the 2nd order were studied by Fermat) and the binomial expansion of an arbitrary (not necessarily integer) degree, from which Newton’s theory of infinite series began - a new and powerful tool of analysis . Newton considered series expansion to be the basic and general method analysis of functions, and in this matter reached the heights of mastery. He used series to calculate tables, solve equations (including differential ones), and study the behavior of functions. Newton was able to obtain expansions for all the functions that were standard at that time.

In 1707, the book “Universal Arithmetic” was published. It presents a variety of numerical methods.

Newton always paid great attention to the approximate solution of equations. Newton's famous method made it possible to find the roots of equations with previously unimaginable speed and accuracy (published in Wallis' Algebra, 1685). Modern look Newton's iterative method was introduced by Joseph Raphson (1690).

It is noteworthy that Newton was not at all interested in number theory. Apparently, physics was much closer to mathematics to him.

Theory of gravity

The very idea of the universal force of gravity was repeatedly expressed before Newton. Previously, Epicurus, Kepler, Descartes, Huygens, Hooke and others thought about it. Kepler believed that gravity is inversely proportional to the distance to the Sun and extends only in the ecliptic plane; Descartes considered it the result of vortices in the ether. There were, however, guesses with the correct formula (Bulliald, Wren, Hooke), and even quite seriously substantiated (using the correlation of Huygens' formula for centrifugal force and Kepler's third law for circular orbits). But before Newton, no one was able to clearly and mathematically conclusively connect the law of gravity (a force inversely proportional to the square of the distance) and the laws of planetary motion (Kepler's laws).

It is important to note that Newton published not just the supposed formula of the law of universal gravitation, but actually proposed a holistic mathematical model in the context of a well-developed, complete, explicit and systematic approach to mechanics:

law of gravitation;

law of motion (Newton's 2nd law);

system of methods for mathematical research (mathematical analysis).

Taken together, this triad is sufficient for full research the most complex movements of celestial bodies, thereby creating the foundations of celestial mechanics. Before Einstein, no fundamental amendments to this model were needed, although the mathematical apparatus was very significantly developed.

Newton's theory of gravity caused many years of debate and criticism of the concept of long-range action.

The first argument in favor of the Newtonian model was the rigorous derivation of Kepler's empirical laws on its basis. The next step was the theory of the movement of comets and the Moon, set out in the “Principles”. Later, with the help of Newtonian gravity, all observed movements of celestial bodies were explained with high accuracy; This is a great merit of Clairaut and Laplace.

The first observable corrections to Newton's theory in astronomy (explained by general relativity) were discovered only more than 200 years later (shift of the perihelion of Mercury). However, they are also very small within the solar system.

Newton also discovered the cause of tides: the gravity of the Moon (even Galileo considered tides to be a centrifugal effect). Moreover, having processed many years of data on the height of tides, he calculated the mass of the Moon with good accuracy.

Another consequence of gravity was the precession of the earth's axis. Newton found out that due to the oblateness of the Earth at the poles, the earth's axis undergoes a constant slow displacement with a period of 26,000 years under the influence of the attraction of the Moon and the Sun. Thus, the ancient problem of “anticipation of the equinoxes” (first noted by Hipparchus) found a scientific explanation.

Optics and theory of light

Newton made fundamental discoveries in optics. He built the first mirror telescope (reflector), in which, unlike purely lens telescopes, there was no chromatic aberration. He also discovered the dispersion of light, showed that white light is decomposed into the colors of the rainbow due to different refraction of rays different colors when passing through a prism, and laid the foundations for correct color theory.

During this period there were many speculative theories of light and color; Basically, they fought between the points of view of Aristotle (“different colors are a mixture of light and darkness in different proportions”) and Descartes (“different colors are created when light particles rotate at different speeds”). Hooke, in his Micrographia (1665), proposed a variant of Aristotelian views. Many believed that color is an attribute not of light, but of an illuminated object. The general discord was aggravated by a cascade of discoveries in the 17th century: diffraction (1665, Grimaldi), interference (1665, Hooke), double refraction (1670, Erasmus Bartholin, studied by Huygens), estimation of the speed of light (1675, Roemer), significant improvements in telescopes. There was no theory of light compatible with all these facts.

In his speech to the Royal Society, Newton refuted both Aristotle and Descartes, and convincingly proved that white light is not primary, but consists of colored components with different angles of refraction. These components are primary - Newton could not change their color with any tricks. Thus, the subjective sensation of color received a solid objective basis - the refractive index.

Newton created the mathematical theory of interference rings discovered by Hooke, which have since been called “Newton’s Rings.”

In 1689, Newton stopped research in the field of optics - according to a widespread legend, he vowed not to publish anything in this area during the life of Hooke, who constantly pestered Newton with criticism that was painful for the latter. In any case, in 1704, on next year after Hooke's death, the monograph “Optics” was published. During the author’s lifetime, “Optics,” like “Principles,” went through three editions and many translations.

Book one of the monograph contained the principles of geometric optics, the doctrine of light dispersion and composition white with various applications.

Book two: interference of light in thin plates.

Book three: diffraction and polarization of light. Newton explained polarization during birefringence closer to the truth than Huygens (a supporter of the wave nature of light), although the explanation of the phenomenon itself was unsuccessful, in the spirit of the emission theory of light.

Newton is often considered a proponent of the corpuscular theory of light; in fact, as usual, he “did not invent hypotheses” and readily admitted that light could also be associated with waves in the ether. In his monograph, Newton described in detail the mathematical model of light phenomena, leaving aside the question of the physical carrier of light.

Other works in physics

Newton was the first to derive the speed of sound in a gas, based on the Boyle-Mariotte law.

He predicted the oblateness of the Earth at the poles, approximately 1:230. At the same time, Newton used a homogeneous fluid model to describe the Earth, applied the law of universal gravitation and took into account centrifugal force. At the same time, Huygens performed similar calculations on similar grounds; he considered gravity as if its source was in the center of the planet, since, apparently, he did not believe in the universal nature of the force of gravity, that is, ultimately he did not take into account the gravity of the deformed surface layer of the planet. Accordingly, Huygens predicted a compression less than half that of Newton, 1:576. Moreover, Cassini and other Cartesians argued that the Earth is not compressed, but bulged at the poles like a lemon. Subsequently, although not immediately (the first measurements were inaccurate), direct measurements (Clerot, 1743) confirmed Newton’s correctness; actual compression is 1:298. The reason this value differs from that proposed by Newton in favor of Huygens’s is that the model of a homogeneous liquid is still not entirely accurate (density increases noticeably with depth). A more accurate theory, explicitly taking into account the dependence of density on depth, was developed only in the 19th century.

Other works

In parallel with the research that laid the foundation of the current scientific (physical and mathematical) tradition, Newton devoted a lot of time to alchemy, as well as theology. He did not publish any works on alchemy, and the only known result of this long-term hobby was the serious poisoning of Newton in 1691.

It is paradoxical that Newton, who worked for many years at the College of the Holy Trinity, apparently himself did not believe in the Trinity. Researchers of his theological works, such as L. More, believe that Newton's religious views were close to Arianism.

Newton proposed his own version of biblical chronology, leaving behind a significant number of manuscripts on these issues. In addition, he wrote a commentary on the Apocalypse. Newton's theological manuscripts are now kept in Jerusalem, in the National Library.

The Secret Works of Isaac Newton

As is known, shortly before the end of his life, Isaac refuted all the theories put forward by himself and burned the documents that contained the secret of their refutation: some had no doubt that everything was exactly like that, while others believe that such actions would be simply absurd and claim that the archive complete with documents, but only belongs to a select few...

Isaac Newton is an English scientist, historian, physicist, mathematician and alchemist. He was born into a farming family in Woolsthorpe. Newton's father died before his birth. Soon after the death of her beloved husband, the mother married a second time to a priest who lived in a neighboring town and moved in with him. Isaac Newton, short biography of whom is written below, and his grandmother remained in Woolsthorpe. Some researchers explain the scientist’s bilious and unsociable character with this emotional shock.

At the age of twelve, Isaac Newton entered Grantham School, and in 1661 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge University. To earn money, the young scientist performed the duties of servants. The mathematics teacher at the college was I. Barrow.

During the plague epidemic in 1965-1967, Isaac Newton was in his home village. These years were the most productive in his scientific activity. It was here that he developed the ideas that later led Newton to the creation of a reflecting telescope (Isaac Newton made it on his own in 1968) and to the discovery of the law of universal gravitation. Also here he conducted experiments involving the decomposition of light.

In 1668, the scientist was awarded the title, and a year later Barrow transferred his chair (physics and mathematics) to him. Isaac Newton, whose biography is of interest to many researchers, occupied it until 1701.

In 1671, Isaac Newton invents his second mirror telescope. It was bigger and better than the previous one. The demonstration of this telescope made a very strong impression on contemporaries. Soon after this, Isaac Newton was elected a member of the Royal Society. At the same time, he presented to the scientific community his research on a new theory of colors and light, which caused sharp disagreements with

Isaac Newton also developed the basis. This became known from the correspondence of European scientists, although the scientist himself did not publish a single note on this matter. In 1704, the first publication on the fundamentals of analysis was published, and complete guide published in 1736, posthumously.

In 1965, Isaac Newton became superintendent of the Mint. This was facilitated by the fact that the scientist was once interested in alchemy. Newton supervised the reminting of all English coins. It was he who put in order the coinage of England, which until then had been in disarray. For this, in 1966, the scientist received the lifelong title of director of the English court, which was highly paid at that time. In the same year, Isaac Newton became a member of the Paris Academy of Sciences. In 1705, the great one raised him to the rank of knight for his grandiose scientific works.

IN last years In his life, Newton devoted a lot of time to theology, as well as biblical and ancient history. The great scientist was buried in the national English pantheon -

Greetings to regular readers and guests of the site! The article “Isaac Newton: biography, facts, video” is about the life of the English mathematician, physicist, alchemist and historian. Along with Galileo, Newton is considered the founder modern science.

Biography of Isaac Newton

Isaac was born into a farmer's family on January 4, 1643. A few months before his birth, his father died. Mother trying to arrange personal life, moved to another town, leaving her little son with his grandmother in the village of Woolsthorpe.

The absence of parents will affect the character of the little genius: he will become silent and withdrawn. All his life he felt lonely, never married and did not have his own family.

After studying at primary school, the young man continued his studies at school in Grantham. He lived in the house of the pharmacist Clark, where the guy developed an interest in studying chemistry.

At the age of 19 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge University. The talented student was very poor, so he had to serve as a servant in college to pay for his education. Newton's teacher was the famous mathematician Isaac Barrow.

Woolsthorpe

After graduating from the university, Isaac Newton received a bachelor's degree in 1665. But in the same year, a plague epidemic struck England and Isaac had to return to his native village of Woolsthorpe.

Woolsthorpe. The house where Newton was born and lived

The young man was in no hurry to engage in village farming, and quickly received the label of a lazy person from his neighbors. People did not understand why a grown boy would throw stones and twirl glass in his hands.

It was during this period that his ideas for the most important discoveries in mathematics and physics were born, which led him to the creation of differential and integral calculus, the invention of the reflecting telescope, the discovery of the law of universal gravitation, and here he conducted experiments on the decomposition of light.

Cambridge

He returned to Cambridge only two years later, and not empty-handed. Soon the young man receives a master's degree and begins teaching at a college. And a year later, Professor of Mathematics Newton will head the physics and mathematics department.

The brilliant scientist continues his experiments in optics. In 1671, he designed the first reflecting telescope, which impressed not only scientists, but also the king. This paved the way for the physicist to join the English Academy of Sciences.

Newton worked at the university and worked on studying the laws of motion and the structure of the universe. “Mathematical principles of natural philosophy” (briefly “Principles”) - main work his life.

“Principles” combined different sciences. Fundamentals of mechanics in a classical form. Theoretical view of the movement of celestial bodies. An explanation of the ebb and flow of the tides and a scientific forecast for several centuries to come.

Newton was an ambitious scientist. A real dispute arose between him and the Saxon scientist about the right of the discoverer in the field of differential and integral calculus. The controversy dragged on for long years. Newton did not hesitate to insult his colleague.

London

When the scientist was appointed caretaker of the state mint, he moved to London.

The coinage business, under his leadership, was put in order. He was awarded the prestigious title of master. This forever put an end to the scientist’s cramped financial situation, however, it alienated him from science.

Newton was elected a member of the Royal Society of London, which he headed in 1703, becoming its president. He served in this post for a quarter of a century.

Sir Newton

In 1705 another memorable event occurred. Queen Anne knighted Newton. Now the honorary scientist had to be called “Sir”.

So, the boy, whose fate was written to be a farmer, not in the best health, became a great scientist, recognized quite early, and lived 83 years. The great scientist was buried in Westminster Abbey. His zodiac sign is Capricorn.
Isaac Newton: short biography ↓

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/brief historical perspective/

The greatness of a true scientist is not in the titles and awards with which he is marked or awarded by the world community, and not even in the recognition of his services to Humanity, but in the discoveries and theories that he left to the World. Unique discoveries made during his bright Life by the famous scientist Isaac Newton is difficult to overestimate or underestimate.

Theories and discoveries

Isaac Newton formulated the basic laws of classical mechanics, was opened law of universal gravitation, theory developed movements of celestial bodies, created fundamentals of celestial mechanics.

Isaac Newton(independently of Gottfried Leibniz) created theory of differential and integral calculus, opened light dispersion, chromatic aberration, studied interference and diffraction, developed corpuscular theory of light, gave a hypothesis that combined corpuscular And wave representations, built mirror telescope.

Space and time Newton considered absolute.

Historical formulations of Newton's laws of mechanics

Newton's first law

Every body continues to be maintained in a state of rest or uniform and rectilinear movement, until and as long as it is not forced by applied forces to change this state.

Newton's second law

In an inertial reference frame, the acceleration that a material point receives is directly proportional to the resultant of all forces applied to it and inversely proportional to its mass.

The change in momentum is proportional to the applied driving force and occurs in the direction of the straight line along which this force acts.

Newton's third law

An action always has an equal and opposite reaction, otherwise the interactions of two bodies on each other are equal and directed in opposite directions.

Some of Newton's contemporaries considered him alchemist. He was the director of the Mint, established the coin business in England, and headed the society Prior-Zion, studied the chronology of ancient kingdoms. He devoted several theological works (mostly unpublished) to the interpretation of biblical prophecies.

Newton's works

– “A New Theory of Light and Colors”, 1672 (communication to the Royal Society)

– “Motion of bodies in orbit” (lat. De Motu Corporum in Gyrum), 1684

– “Mathematical principles of natural philosophy” (lat. Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica), 1687

- “Optics or a treatise on the reflections, refractions, bendings and colors of light” (eng. Opticks or a treatise of the reflections, refractions, inflections and colors of light), 1704

– “On the quadrature of curves” (lat. Tractatus de quadratura curvarum), supplement to "Optics"

– “Enumeration of lines of the third order” (lat. Enumeratio linearum tertii ordinis), supplement to "Optics"

– “Universal arithmetic” (lat. Arithmetica Universalis), 1707

– “Analysis using equations with an infinite number of terms” (lat. De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas), 1711

– “Method of Differences”, 1711

According to scientists around the world, Newton's work was significantly ahead of the general scientific level of his time and was poorly understood by his contemporaries. However, Newton himself said about himself: “ I don’t know how the world perceives me, but to myself I seem to be only a boy playing on the seashore, who amuses himself by occasionally finding a pebble more colorful than the others, or a beautiful shell, while the great ocean of truth spreads out before me. unexplored by me. »

But according to the conviction of no less a great scientist, A. Einstein “ Newton was the first to try to formulate elementary laws that determine the time course of a wide class of processes in nature with a high degree of completeness and accuracy." and “... with his works had a deep and strong influence on the entire worldview as a whole. »

Newton's grave bears the following inscription:

“Here lies Sir Isaac Newton, the nobleman who, with an almost divine mind, was the first to prove with the torch of mathematics the motion of the planets, the paths of comets and the tides of the oceans. He investigated the differences in light rays and the various properties of colors that appeared thereby, which no one had previously suspected. A diligent, wise and faithful interpreter of nature, antiquity and Holy Scripture, he affirmed with his philosophy the greatness of Almighty God, and with his disposition he expressed evangelical simplicity. Let mortals rejoice that such an adornment of the human race existed. »

Prepared Lazarus Model.