Methods of scientific research. Methodology and methodology of scientific research

Empirical (what is perceived by the senses) cognition is carried out in the process of experience, understood in the broadest sense, that is, as the interaction of a subject with an object, in which the subject not only passively reflects the object, but also actively changes and transforms it.

The empirical method consists of sequentially performing the following five operations: observation, measurement, modeling, forecasting, checking the forecast.

In science, the main forms of empirical research are observation and experiment. In addition, they also include numerous measurement procedures, which, although closer to theory, are still carried out precisely within the framework of empirical knowledge and especially experiment.

The initial empirical procedure is observation, since it is included in both the experiment and the measurements, while the observations themselves can be carried out outside the experiment and do not involve measurements.

1. Observation - a purposeful study of objects, based mainly on data from the senses (sensation, perception, ideas). During observation, the knowledge gained is not only about the external aspects of the object of knowledge, but - as the ultimate goal - about its essential properties and relationships.

The concepts of methods and techniques are often used as synonyms, but they often differ when methods refer to more complex cognitive procedures that include a whole set of different research techniques.

Observation can be direct and indirect with various instruments and technical devices (microscope, telescope, photo and film cameras, etc.) With the development of science, observation becomes more complex and indirect.

Basic requirements for scientific observation: unambiguous design; the presence of a system of methods and techniques; objectivity, i.e. the possibility of control through either repeated observation or using other methods (for example, experiment).

Observation is usually included as part of the experimental procedure. An important point in observation is the interpretation of its results - deciphering instrument readings, a curve on an oscilloscope, an electrocardiogram, etc.

The cognitive result of observation is a description - recording, using natural and artificial language, initial information about the object being studied: diagrams, graphs, diagrams, tables, drawings, etc. Observation is closely related to measurement, which is the process of finding the ratio of a given quantity to another homogeneous quantity, taken as a unit of measurement. The measurement result is expressed as a number.

Observation is particularly difficult in the social sciences and humanities, where its results largely depend on the personality of the observer, his life attitudes and principles, and his interested attitude towards the subject being studied.

During observation, the researcher is always guided by a specific idea, concept or hypothesis. He does not simply register any facts, but deliberately selects those that either confirm or refute his ideas.

In this case, it is very important to select the most representative, i.e., the most representative group of facts in their interrelation. Interpretation of an observation is always carried out using certain theoretical principles.

2. Experiment - active and purposeful intervention in the course of the process under study, a corresponding change in the object or its reproduction in specially created and controlled conditions.

Thus, in an experiment, an object is either reproduced artificially or placed in a certain way specified conditions that meet the goals of the study. During the experiment, the object being studied is isolated from the influence of side circumstances that obscure its essence and is presented in its pure form. In this case, specific experimental conditions are not only set, but also controlled, modernized, and reproduced many times.

Every scientific experiment is always guided by some idea, concept, hypothesis. The data of an experiment are always theoretically loaded in one way or another - from its setup to the interpretation of its results.

Main features of the experiment:

a) a more active (than during observation) attitude towards the object, up to its change and transformation;

b) repeated reproducibility of the studied object at the request of the researcher;

c) the possibility of detecting properties of phenomena that are not observed in natural conditions;

d) the possibility of considering a phenomenon in its “pure” form by isolating it from circumstances that complicate and mask its course or by changing, varying the experimental conditions;

e) the ability to control the behavior of the research object and verify the results.

The main stages of the experiment: planning and construction (its purpose, type, means, methods of implementation); control; interpretation of results.

An experiment has two interrelated functions: experimental testing of hypotheses and theories, as well as the formation of new scientific concepts. Depending on these functions, experiments are distinguished: research (search), testing (control), reproducing, isolating.

Based on the nature of the objects, physical, chemical, biological, and social experiments are distinguished. Of great importance in modern science is the decisive experiment, the purpose of which is to refute one and confirm the other of two (or several) concepts that compete.

This difference is relative: an experiment designed to be confirmatory may turn out to be disconfirming in its results, and vice versa. But in any case, the experiment consists of posing specific questions to nature, the answers to which should provide information about its patterns.

One of the simple types of scientific experiment is a qualitative experiment, which aims to establish the presence or absence of a phenomenon assumed by a hypothesis or theory. A more complex quantitative experiment that reveals the quantitative certainty of any property of the phenomenon being studied.

A thought experiment, a system of mental procedures carried out on idealized objects, has become widespread in modern science. A thought experiment is a theoretical model of real experimental situations. Here the scientist operates not with real objects and the conditions of their existence, but with their conceptual images.

Social experiments are increasingly developing, which contribute to the introduction of new forms of social organization and optimization of social management. The object of a social experiment, in the role of a certain group of people, is one of the participants in the experiment, whose interests have to be taken into account, and the researcher himself is included in the situation he is studying.

3. Comparison is a cognitive operation that underlies judgments about the similarity or difference of objects. Using comparison, the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of objects are revealed.

To compare is to compare one thing with another in order to identify their relationship. The simplest and most important type of relationship revealed through comparison is the relationship of identity and difference.

It should be borne in mind that comparison makes sense only in the aggregate of homogeneous objects that form a class. Comparison of objects in a class is carried out on the basis of characteristics that are essential for this consideration, while objects compared on one basis may be incomparable on another.

Comparison is the basis of such a logical device as analogy, and serves as the starting point of the comparative-historical method.

This is the method by which, through comparison, the general and special in historical and other phenomena are revealed, knowledge of the various stages of development of the same phenomenon or different coexisting phenomena is achieved.

This method allows us to identify and compare levels in the development of the phenomenon being studied, changes that have occurred, and determine development trends. Scientific methods of theoretical research

1. Formalization - display of content knowledge in a sign-symbolic form. Formalization is based on the distinction between natural and artificial languages. Expressing thinking in natural language can be considered the first step of formalization. Natural languages ​​as a means of communication are characterized by polysemy, versatility, flexibility, imprecision, figurativeness, etc. It is an open, continuously changing system that constantly acquires new meaning and significance.

Further deepening of formalization is associated with the construction of artificial (formalized) languages, designed for a more accurate and rigorous expression of knowledge than natural language, in order to eliminate the possibility of ambiguous understanding - which is typical for natural language (the language of mathematics, logic, chemistry, etc.)

The symbolic languages ​​of mathematics and other exact sciences have more than just the purpose of shortening writing - this can be done using shorthand. The language of artificial language formulas becomes a tool of cognition. It plays the same role in theoretical knowledge as the microscope and telescope do in empirical knowledge.

It is the use of special symbols that makes it possible to eliminate the ambiguity of words in ordinary language. In formalized reasoning, each symbol is strictly unambiguous.

As a universal means for communication and exchange of thoughts and information, language performs many functions.

An important task of logic and methodology is to convey and transform existing information as accurately as possible and thereby eliminate some of the shortcomings of natural language. This is why artificial formalized languages ​​are created. Such languages ​​are used primarily in scientific knowledge, and in recent years they have become widespread in programming and algorithmization of various processes using computers.

The advantage of artificial languages ​​lies primarily in their accuracy, unambiguousness, and most importantly, in the ability to represent ordinary meaningful reasoning through calculation.

The meaning of formalization in scientific knowledge is as follows.

o It makes it possible to analyze, clarify, define and clarify (explicate) concepts. Everyday ideas (expressed in spoken language), although they seem clearer and more obvious from the point of view of common sense, turn out to be unsuitable for scientific knowledge due to their uncertainty, ambiguity and imprecision.

o It acquires a special role in the analysis of evidence. Presenting the proof in the form of a sequence of formulas obtained from the original ones using precisely specified transformation rules gives them the necessary rigor and accuracy.

o It serves as the basis for the processes of algorithmization and programming of computing devices, and thereby the computerization of not only scientific and technical, but also other forms of knowledge.

When formalizing, reasoning about objects is transferred to the plane of operating with signs (formulas). Relationships of signs replace statements about the properties and relationships of objects.

In this way, a generalized sign model of a certain subject area is created, which makes it possible to detect the structure of various phenomena and processes while abstracting from the qualitative, substantive characteristics of the latter.

The main thing in the formalization process is that operations can be performed on the formulas of artificial languages, and new formulas and relationships can be obtained from them.

Thus, operations with thoughts about objects are replaced by actions with signs and symbols. Formalization in this sense is a logical method of clarifying the content of a thought by clarifying its logical form. But it has nothing to do with the absolutization of logical form in relation to content.

Formalization, therefore, is a generalization of the forms of processes that differ in content, and the abstraction of these forms from their content. It clarifies the content by identifying its form and can be carried out with varying degrees of completeness.

2. The axiomatic method is one of the ways of deductively constructing scientific theories, in which:

a) a system of basic terms of science is formulated;

b) from these terms a certain set of axioms (postulates) is formed - provisions that do not require proof and are the initial ones, from which all other statements of this theory are derived according to certain rules;

c) a system of inference rules is formulated, which allows one to transform initial provisions and move from one position to another, as well as introduce new terms (concepts) into the theory;

d) the transformation of postulates is carried out according to rules that make it possible to obtain from a limited number of axioms a set of provable provisions - theorems.

Thus, to derive theorems from axioms, special rules of inference are formulated.

All concepts of the theory, except primitive ones, are introduced through definitions that express them through previously introduced concepts.

Consequently, a proof in the axiomatic method is a certain sequence of formulas, each of which is either an axiom or is obtained from previous formulas according to some rule of inference.

The axiomatic method is only one of the methods for constructing scientific knowledge. It has limited application, since it requires a high level of development of an axiomatized substantive theory.

3. Hypothetico-deductive method. Its essence lies in the creation of a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses, from which statements about empirical facts are ultimately derived.

This method is thus based on the deduction of conclusions from hypotheses and other premises, the true meaning of which is unknown. Therefore, the conclusions here are probabilistic in nature.

This nature of the conclusion is also due to the fact that guesswork, intuition, imagination, and inductive generalization are involved in the formation of a hypothesis, not to mention the experience, qualifications and talent of the scientist. And all these factors are almost impossible to strictly logically analyze.

Initial concepts: hypothesis (assumption) - a position put forward at the beginning of a preliminary conditional explanation of a certain phenomenon or group of phenomena; assumption about the existence of some phenomenon. The truth of this assumption is uncertain and problematic.

Deduction (inference): a) in the most general sense - this is a transition in the process of cognition from the general to the particular (individual), the derivation of the latter from the first; b) in a special sense - the process of logical inference, i.e., a transition according to certain rules of logic from certain given assumptions (premises) to their consequences (conclusions).

The general structure of the hypothetico-deductive method (or hypothesis method):

Familiarization with factual material that requires a theoretical explanation and an attempt to do so with the help of already existing theories and laws. If not, then:

Making conjectures (assumptions) about the causes and patterns of these phenomena using many logical techniques.

Assessing the severity of assumptions and selecting the most probable from among many guesses.

In this case, the hypothesis is checked for: a) logical consistency; b) compatibility with the fundamental theoretical principles of a given science (for example, with the law of conservation and transformation of energy).

However, it should be borne in mind that during periods of scientific revolutions, it is the fundamental principles that collapse and crazy ideas that cannot be deduced from these principles arise.

o Deriving consequences from a hypothesis (usually deductively) with clarification of its content.

o Experimental verification of the consequences derived from the hypothesis. Here the hypothesis either receives experimental confirmation or is refuted. However, confirmation does not guarantee its overall truth (or falsity).

From a logical point of view, the hypothetico-deductive method is a hierarchy of hypotheses, the degree of abstraction and generality of which increases with distance from the empirical basis.

At the very top are the hypotheses that are most general in nature and therefore have the greatest logical power. From these, as premises, lower-level hypotheses are derived. At the lowest level there are hypotheses that can be compared with empirical reality.

A mathematical hypothesis can be considered a type of hypothetico-deductive method, where some equations representing a modification of previously known and tested relationships act as hypotheses. By changing these relationships, a new equation is created that expresses a hypothesis that relates to unexplored phenomena.

The hypothetico-deductive method is not so much a method of discovery as a way of constructing and justifying scientific knowledge, since it shows exactly how one can arrive at a new hypothesis. Already in the early stages of the development of science, this method was especially widely used by Galileo and Newton.

Zagalological methods and techniques of cognition

1. Analysis - dividing an object into its component parts for the purpose of studying them independently. It is used both in real (practice) and in mental activity.

Types of analysis: mechanical dissection; determination of dynamic composition; identifying forms of interaction between elements of the whole; finding the causes of phenomena; identifying levels of knowledge and its structure, etc.

The analysis should not overlook the quality of the items. Each area of ​​knowledge has, as it were, its own limit of division of an object, beyond which we move into another world of properties and patterns (atom, molecule, etc.). A type of analysis is also the division of classes (sets) of objects into subclasses - classification and periodization.

2. Synthesis - unification - real or mental - of various aspects, parts of an object into a single whole.

The result of the synthesis is a completely new formation, the properties of which are not only an external combination of the properties of the components, but also the result of their internal relationship and interdependence.

Analysis and synthesis are dialectically interrelated, but some activities are primarily analytical (for example, analytical chemistry) or synthetic (for example, synergetics).

3. Abstraction. Abstraction:

a) side, moment, part of the whole, fragment of reality, something undeveloped, one-sided, fragmentary (abstract);

b) the process of mental abstraction from a number of properties and relationships of the phenomenon being studied with the simultaneous identification of properties that are of interest to the cognizing subject at the moment (abstraction);

c) a result that abstracts the activities of thinking (abstraction in the narrow sense).

These are various kinds of abstract subjects, which are both individual concepts and categories, and their systems (the most developed of them are mathematics, logic and philosophy).

Finding out which of the properties under consideration are essential and which are secondary is the main question of abstraction.

The question of what in objective reality is distinguished by the abstract work of thinking, from which thinking is distracted, is decided in each specific case depending, first of all, on the nature of the subject being studied, as well as on the tasks of cognition.

In the course of its historical development, science ascends from one level of abstraction to another, higher one.

There are different types of abstractions:

Abstraction of identification, as a result of which the general properties and relationships of the objects under study are highlighted. Here, corresponding classes are formed on the basis of establishing the equality of objects in given properties or relationships, taking into account what is identical in objects and abstracting from all the differences between them.

Isolating abstraction - certain properties and relationships are highlighted, which begin to be considered as independent individual objects.

Abstraction of actual infinity in mathematics - when infinite sets are considered as finite. Here the researcher is distracted from the fundamental impossibility of recording and describing every element of an infinite set, accepting such a problem as solved.

The abstraction of potential feasibility is based on the fact that any but a finite number of operations can be carried out in the process of mathematical activity.

Abstractions also differ in levels (orders). Abstractions from real objects are called first-order abstractions. Abstractions from first-level abstractions are called second-order abstractions, etc. The highest level of abstraction is characterized by philosophical categories.

4. Idealization is most often considered as a specific type of abstraction. Idealization is the mental construction of concepts about objects that do not exist and cannot be realized in reality, but those for which there are prototypes in the real world.

In the process of idealization, there is an extreme abstraction from all the real properties of an object with the simultaneous introduction into the content of the concepts being formed of features that are not realized in reality. As a result, a so-called idealized object is formed, with which theoretical thinking can operate when reflecting real objects.

As a result of idealization, a theoretical model is formed in which the characteristics and aspects of the cognizable object are not only abstracted from the actual empirical material, but through mental construction appear in a more sharply and fully expressed form than in reality itself.

The idealized object ultimately acts as a reflection of real objects and processes.

Having formed theoretical constructs using the idealization of this kind of objects, you can further operate with them in reasoning as a really existing thing and build abstract diagrams of real processes that serve for a deeper understanding of them.

Thus, idealized objects are not pure fictions unrelated to real reality, but are the result of a very complex and indirect reflection of it.

An idealized object represents real objects in cognition, but not according to all, but only according to some, strictly fixed characteristics. It is a simplified and schematized image of a real object.

Theoretical statements, as a rule, directly relate not to real objects, but to idealized objects, cognitive activity with which makes it possible to establish significant connections and patterns that are not available when studying real objects, taken in all the diversity of their empirical properties and relationships.

Idealized objects are the result of various thought experiments that are aimed at realizing some case that has not been realized in reality. Developed scientific theories usually consider not individual idealized objects and their properties, but integral systems of idealized objects and their structures.

5. Generalization is the process of establishing the general properties and characteristics of objects. Closely related to abstraction. The epistemological basis of generalization is the categories of the general and the individual.

It is necessary to distinguish between two types of generalities:

a) abstractly general as simple sameness, external similarity, superficial similarity of a number of individual objects (the so-called abstractly general feature). This type of generality, identified through comparison, plays an important but limited role in cognition;

b) concretely general as the law of existence and development of a number of individual phenomena in their interaction as part of the whole, as unity in diversity. This type of generality expresses the internal, deep, recurring basis of a group of similar phenomena - the essence in its developed form, that is, the law.

The general is inseparable from the individual (separate) as its opposite, and their unity is special. Single (individual, separate) is a philosophical category that expresses the specificity, originality of a given phenomenon (or group of phenomena of the same quality), its difference from others.

In accordance with the two types of generalities, two types of scientific generalizations are distinguished: the identification of any characteristics (abstract general) or essential (concrete general, law).

On another basis, generalizations can be distinguished:

a) from individual facts, events to their expression in thoughts (inductive generalization);

b) from one thought to another, more general thought (logical generalization). The mental transition from the more general to the less general is a process of limitation.

Generalization cannot be limitless. Its limit is philosophical categories that do not have a generic concept and therefore cannot be generalized.

6. Induction is a logical research technique associated with generalizing the results of observations and experiments and the movement of thought from the individual to the general.

In induction, the data of experience lead to the general, induce it. Since experience is always infinite and incomplete, inductive conclusions are always problematic. Inductive generalizations are usually regarded as empirical truths or empirical laws. The following types of inductive generalizations are distinguished: A. Popular induction, when regularly repeated properties observed in some representatives of the studied set and fixed in the premises of inductive inference are transferred to all representatives of the studied set - including its unstudied parts.

B. Induction is incomplete, where it is concluded that all representatives of the set under study belong to a property on the grounds that this property belongs to some representatives of this set.

Induction is complete, in which the conclusion is made that all representatives of the set under study belong to the property based on the information obtained during the study that each representative of the set under study belongs to this property.

When considering complete induction, it is necessary to keep in mind that:

D. Scientific induction, in which, in addition to the formal substantiation of the generalization obtained inductively, an additional substantive substantiation of its truth is given, including with the help of deduction (theories, laws). Scientific induction provides a reliable conclusion due to the fact that the emphasis is on necessary, natural and causal relationships.

D. Mathematical induction - used as a specific mathematical proof, where induction and deduction, assumption and proof are organically combined.

The considered methods for establishing causal relationships are most often used not in isolation, but in conjunction, complementing each other. In this case, one should not make the mistake: “after this, because of this.”

7. Deduction:

a) transition in the process of cognition from the general to the individual (particular); deducing the individual from the general;

b) the process of logical inference, i.e., transition according to certain rules of logic from certain given sentences - premises to their consequences (conclusions).

As one of the methods of scientific knowledge, it is closely related to induction; these are dialectically interconnected ways of moving thought.

Analogy does not provide reliable knowledge: if the premises of reasoning by analogy are true, this does not mean that its conclusion will be true.

To increase the likelihood of drawing conclusions by analogy, it is necessary to strive to:

a) the internal, rather than external, properties of the objects that are compared were captured;

b) these objects were similar in the most important and essential characteristics, and not in random and secondary ones;

c) the range of matching features was as wide as possible;

d) not only similarities were taken into account, but also differences - so that the latter were not transferred to another object.

8. Modeling. Inferences by analogy, understood extremely broadly, as the transfer of information from one object to another, form the epistemological basis of modeling - a method of studying objects using their models.

A model is an analogue of a certain fragment of reality, a product of human culture, conceptual and theoretical images, that is, the original of the model.

This analogue is a representative of the original in knowledge and practice. It serves to store and expand knowledge (information) about the original, construct the original, transform or manage it.

There must be a certain similarity (relationship of similarity) between the model and the original: physical characteristics, functions; behavior of the object being studied and its mathematical description; structures, etc. It is this similarity that allows the information obtained as a result of studying the model to be transferred to the original.

The forms of modeling are varied and depend on the models used and the scope of application of the modeling.

According to the nature of the models, material and ideal modeling are distinguished, expressed in the appropriate symbolic form.

Material models are natural objects that obey natural laws in their functioning - physics, mechanics. In the physical (subject-specific) modeling of a specific object, its study is replaced by the study of a certain model that has the same physical nature as the original (models of airplanes, ships).

With ideal (sign) modeling, models appear in the form of diagrams, graphs, drawings, formulas, systems of equations, and proposals.

9. The systems approach is a set of general scientific methodological principles (requirements), which are based on the consideration of objects as systems.

A system is a general scientific concept that expresses a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other and with the environment, forming a certain integrity, unity.

The types of systems are very diverse: material and spiritual, inorganic and living, mechanical and organic, biological and social, static and dynamic, open and closed.

Any system consists of many different elements that have structure and organization.

Structure: a) a set of stable connections of an object that ensure its integrity and identity with itself; b) a relatively stable way of connecting the elements of a complex whole.

The specificity of the systems approach is determined by the fact that it focuses research on revealing the integrity of the object and the mechanisms that provide it, identifying the diverse types of connections of a complex object and bringing them together into a single theoretical picture.

The main requirements of the systems approach include the following:

a) identifying the dependence of each element on its place and functions in the system, taking into account the fact that the properties of the whole are irreducible to the sum of the properties of its elements;

b) analysis of the extent to which the behavior of the system is determined both by the characteristics of its individual elements and by the properties of its structure;

c) research into the mechanism of interdependence, interaction between the system and the environment;

d) studying the nature of the hierarchy inherent in a given system;

e) ensuring a plurality of descriptions for the purpose of multidimensional coverage of the system;

f) consideration of the dynamism of the system, its presentation as an integrity that develops.

An important concept of the systems approach is the concept of self-organization. This concept characterizes the process of creating, reproducing or improving the organization of a complex, open, dynamic, self-developing system, the connections between the elements of which are not rigid, but probabilistic.

10. Probabilistic (statistical) methods - based on taking into account the action of many random factors, which are characterized by a stable frequency. This makes it possible to reveal the necessity that “breaks through” through the combined action of many accidents.

Probabilistic methods are based on the theory of probability, which is often called the science of chance, and in the minds of many scientists, probability and chance are practically inseparable.

There is even a statement that today chance appears as an independent beginning of the world, its structure and evolution. The categories of necessity and chance are by no means outdated; on the contrary, their role in modern science has increased significantly.

To understand these methods, it is necessary to consider the concepts of dynamic patterns, statistical patterns and probability.

In dynamic type laws, predictions have a precisely defined, unambiguous character. Dynamic laws characterize the behavior of relatively isolated objects, consisting of a small number of elements, in which one can abstract from a number of random factors.

In statistical laws, predictions are not reliable, but only probabilistic. This nature of predictions is due to the action of many random factors.

A statistical pattern arises as a result of the interaction of a large number of elements that make up a team, and therefore characterizes not so much the behavior of an individual element, but rather the behavior of the team as a whole.

The necessity manifested in statistical laws arises as a result of mutual compensation and balancing of many random factors.

Statistical laws, although they do not give unambiguous and reliable predictions, are nevertheless the only possible ones in the study of mass phenomena of a random nature. Behind the combined action of various factors of a random nature, which are practically impossible to cover, statistical laws reveal something stable, necessary, and repeating.

They serve as confirmation of the dialectic of transforming the accidental into the necessary. Dynamic laws turn out to be a limiting case of statistical ones, when probability becomes practically certainty.

Probability is a concept that characterizes a quantitative measure of the possibility of the occurrence of some random event under certain conditions that can be repeated many times. One of the main tasks of probability theory is to clarify the patterns that arise from the interaction of a large number of random factors.

Probabilistic-statistical methods are widely used in the study of mass phenomena - especially in such scientific disciplines as mathematical statistics, statistical physics, quantum mechanics, cybernetics, and synergetics.

The scientific method is a set of basic methods for obtaining new knowledge and methods for solving problems within the framework of any science. The method includes methods for studying phenomena, systematization, and adjustment of new and previously acquired knowledge.

The structure of the method contains three independent components (aspects):

conceptual component - ideas about one of the possible forms of the object under study;

operational component - regulations, norms, rules, principles regulating the cognitive activity of the subject;

logical component – ​​rules for recording the results of interaction between an object and means of cognition.

An important aspect of the scientific method, its integral part for any science, is the requirement of objectivity, which excludes subjective interpretation of the results. No statements should be taken at face value, even if they come from reputable scientists. To ensure independent verification, observations are documented and all initial data, methods and research results are made available to other scientists. This allows not only to obtain additional confirmation by reproducing experiments, but also to critically evaluate the degree of adequacy (validity) of experiments and results in relation to the theory being tested.

12. Two levels of scientific research: empirical and theoretical, their main methods

In the philosophy of science, methods are distinguished empirical And theoretical knowledge.

The empirical method of cognition is a specialized form of practice closely related to experiment. Theoretical knowledge consists in reflecting phenomena and ongoing processes of internal connections and patterns, which are achieved by methods of processing data obtained from empirical knowledge.

At the theoretical and empirical levels of scientific knowledge, the following types of scientific methods are used:

Theoretical scientific method	Empirical scientific method
theory(ancient Greek θεωρ?α “consideration, research”) is a system of consistent, logically interconnected statements that has predictive power in relation to any phenomenon.	experiment(Latin experimentum - test, experience) in the scientific method - a set of actions and observations performed to test (truth or falsity) a hypothesis or scientific study of causal relationships between phenomena. One of the main requirements for an experiment is its reproducibility.
hypothesis(ancient Greek ?π?θεσις - “foundation”, “assumption”) - an unproven statement, assumption or guess. An unproven and unrefuted hypothesis is called an open problem.	Scientific research- the process of studying, experimenting and testing theories associated with obtaining scientific knowledge. Types of research: -basic research undertaken primarily to produce new knowledge regardless of application prospects; - applied research.
law- a verbal and/or mathematically formulated statement that describes the relationships, connections between various scientific concepts, proposed as an explanation of facts and recognized at this stage by the scientific community.	observation- this is a purposeful process of perceiving objects of reality, the results of which are recorded in the description. Repeated follow-up is necessary to obtain meaningful results. Types: - direct observation, which is carried out without the use of technical means; - indirect observation - using technical devices.
	measurement- this is the determination of quantitative values, properties of an object using special technical devices and units of measurement.
idealization– creation of mental objects and their changes in accordance with the required goals of the research being carried out
formalization– reflection of the obtained results of thinking in statements or precise concepts
reflection– scientific activity aimed at studying specific phenomena and the process of cognition itself
induction– a way of transferring knowledge from individual elements of the process to knowledge of the general process
deduction– the desire for knowledge from the abstract to the concrete, i.e. transition from general patterns to their actual manifestation
abstraction - abstraction in the process of cognition from certain properties of an object for the purpose of in-depth study of one specific aspect of it (the result of abstraction is abstract concepts such as color, curvature, beauty, etc.)
classification - combining various objects into groups based on common characteristics (classification of animals, plants, etc.)

The methods that are used at both levels are:

analysis - decomposition of a single system into its component parts and studying them separately;

synthesis - combining into a single system all the results of the analysis, which allows expanding knowledge and constructing something new;

analogy is a conclusion about the similarity of two objects in some characteristic based on their established similarity in other characteristics;

modeling is the study of an object through models with the transfer of acquired knowledge to the original.

13. Essence and principles of application of methods:

1) Historical and logical

Historical method– a research method based on the study of the emergence, formation and development of objects in chronological order.

Thanks to the use of the historical method, an in-depth understanding of the essence of the problem is achieved and it becomes possible to formulate more informed recommendations for a new object.

The historical method is based on identifying and analyzing contradictions in the development of objects, laws and patterns of technology development.

The method is based on historicism - the principle of scientific knowledge, which is a methodological expression of the self-development of reality, which includes: 1) the study of the present, modern state of the subject of scientific research; 2) reconstruction of the past - consideration of the genesis, emergence of the past and the main stages of its historical movement; 3) foreseeing the future, forecasting trends in the further development of the subject. Absolutization of the principle of historicism can lead to: a) an uncritical assessment of the present; b) archaization or modernization of the past; c) mixing the background of an object with the object itself; d) replacing the main stages of its development with secondary ones; e) foreseeing the future without analyzing the past and present.

Boolean method is a way of studying the essence and content of natural and social objects, based on the study of patterns and the disclosure of objective laws on which this essence is based. The objective basis of the logical method is the fact that complex highly organized objects at the highest stages of their development concisely reproduce in their structure and functioning the main features of their historical evolution. The logical method is an effective means of revealing the patterns and trends of the historical process.

The logical method in combination with the historical method act as methods for constructing theoretical knowledge. It is a mistake to identify the logical method with theoretical constructions, just as it is to identify the historical method with empirical descriptions: on the basis of historical facts, hypotheses are put forward, which are verified by facts and transformed into theoretical knowledge about the laws of the historical process. If the logical method is applied, these patterns are revealed in a form cleared of accidents, and the application of the historical method involves the recording of these accidents, but is not reduced to a simple empirical description of events in their historical sequence, but involves their special reconstruction and the disclosure of their internal logic.

Historical and genetic methods– one of the main methods of historical research, aimed at studying the genesis (origin, stages of development) of specific historical phenomena and analyzing the causality of changes.

I. D. Kovalchenko defined the content of the method as “the consistent disclosure of the properties, functions and changes of the reality under study in the process of its historical movement, which allows us to come closest to reproducing the real history of the object.” I. D. Kovalchenko considered specificity (factuality), descriptiveness, and subjectivism to be the distinctive features of the method.

In its content, the historical-genetic method most closely corresponds to the principle of historicism. The historical-genetic method is based primarily on descriptive technologies, but the result of historical-genetic research only externally has the form of description. The main goal of the historical-genetic method is to explain facts, identify the reasons for their occurrence, features of development and consequences, i.e., analyze causality.

Comparative historical method– a scientific method, with the help of which, through comparison, the general and special in historical phenomena are revealed, knowledge of the various historical stages of development of the same phenomenon or two different coexisting phenomena is achieved; a type of historical method.

Historical-typological method– one of the main methods of historical research, in which the tasks of typology are realized. Typology is based on the division (ordering) of a set of objects or phenomena into qualitatively homogeneous classes (types), taking into account their common significant features. Typology requires adherence to a number of principles, the central of which is the choice of the basis of the typology, which allows reflecting the qualitative nature of both the entire set of objects and the types themselves. Typology as an analytical procedure is closely related to abstraction and simplification of reality. This is reflected in the system of criteria and “boundaries” of types, which acquire abstract, conventional features.

Deductive method- a method that consists in obtaining specific conclusions based on knowledge of some general provisions. In other words, this is the movement of our thinking from the general to the particular, separate. For example, from the general position that all metals have electrical conductivity, one can make a deductive inference about the electrical conductivity of a particular copper wire (knowing that copper is a metal). If the output general provisions are an established scientific truth, then thanks to the method of deduction it is always possible to obtain the correct conclusion. General principles and laws do not allow scientists to go astray in the process of deductive research: they help to correctly understand specific phenomena of reality.

All natural sciences gain new knowledge through deduction, but the deductive method is especially important in mathematics.

Induction– a method of cognition based on formal logical inference, which makes it possible to obtain a general conclusion based on individual facts. In other words, this is the movement of our thinking from the particular, particular to the general.

Induction is implemented in the form of the following methods:

1) single similarity method(in all cases, when observing a phenomenon, only one common factor appears, all others are different, therefore, this single similar factor is the cause of this phenomenon);

2) single difference method(if the circumstances of the occurrence of a phenomenon and the circumstances under which it does not occur are largely similar and differ only in one factor, present only in the first case, then we can conclude that this factor is the cause of this phenomenon)

3) combined method of similarities and differences(represents a combination of the two above methods);

4) concomitant change method(if certain changes in one phenomenon each time cause certain changes in another phenomenon, then the conclusion follows about the causal relationship between these phenomena);

5) residual method(if a complex phenomenon is caused by a multifactorial cause, “and some of these factors are known as the cause of some part of this phenomenon, then the conclusion follows: the cause of another part of the phenomenon is other factors that together constitute the general cause of this phenomenon).

The founder of the classical inductive method of cognition was F. Bacon.

Modeling is a method of creating and researching models. Studying a model allows you to obtain new knowledge, new holistic information about an object.

The essential features of the model are: clarity, abstraction, an element of scientific fantasy and imagination, the use of analogy as a logical method of construction, an element of hypotheticalness. In other words, a model is a hypothesis expressed in a visual form.

The process of creating a model is quite labor-intensive; the researcher goes through several stages.

The first is a thorough study of experience related to the phenomenon of interest to the researcher, analysis and generalization of this experience and the creation of a hypothesis that underlies the future model.

The second is drawing up a research program, organizing practical activities in accordance with the developed program, making adjustments to it, prompted by practice, clarifying the initial research hypothesis taken as the basis of the model.

The third is the creation of the final version of the model. If at the second stage the researcher offers various options for the phenomenon being constructed, then at the third stage, based on these options, he creates a final example of the process (or project) that he is going to implement.

Synchronous– is used less frequently than others and with the help of which it is possible to establish a connection between individual phenomena and processes occurring at the same time, but in different parts of the country or beyond its borders.

Chronological– consists in the fact that historical phenomena are studied strictly in temporal (chronological) order. It is used in compiling chronicles of events and biographies.

Periodization– is based on the fact that society as a whole and any component of it go through various stages of development, separated from each other by qualitative boundaries. The main thing in periodization is the establishment of clear criteria and their strict and consistent application in study and research. The diachronic method involves the study of a certain phenomenon in its development or the study of changing stages, eras in the history of a particular region.

Retrospective– is based on the fact that past, present and future societies are closely interconnected. This makes it possible to recreate a picture of the past even in the absence of all sources relating to the time being studied.

Updates– the historian tries to make predictions and give practical recommendations based on the “lessons of history.”

Statistical– consists in the study of important aspects of the life and activities of the state, the quantitative analysis of many homogeneous facts, each of which individually is not of great importance, while in the aggregate they determine the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones.

Biographical method- a method of studying individuals and groups of people, based on the analysis of their professional path and personal biographies. The source of information can be a variety of documents, resumes, questionnaires, interviews, tests, spontaneous and provoked autobiographies, eyewitness accounts (survey of colleagues), study of products of activity.

2.1. General scientific methods 5

2.2. Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge. 7

1. Bibliography. 12

1. The concept of methodology and method.

Any scientific research is carried out using certain techniques and methods, according to certain rules. The study of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology. However, the concept of “methodology” in the literature is used in two meanings:

1) a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);

2) the doctrine of the scientific method of knowledge.

Methodology (from “method” and “logy”) is the study of structure, logical organization, methods and means of activity.

A method is a set of techniques or operations of practical or theoretical activity. The method can also be characterized as a form of theoretical and practical mastery of reality, based on the patterns of behavior of the object being studied.

Methods of scientific knowledge include the so-called universal methods, i.e. universal methods of thinking, general scientific methods and methods of specific sciences. Methods can be classified according to the relationship between empirical knowledge (i.e. knowledge obtained as a result of experience, experimental knowledge) and theoretical knowledge, the essence of which is knowledge of the essence of phenomena and their internal connections. The classification of methods of scientific knowledge is presented in Fig. 1.2.

Each industry applies its own specific scientific, special methods, determined by the essence of the object of study. However, often methods characteristic of a particular science are used in other sciences. This happens because the objects of study of these sciences are also subject to the laws of this science. For example, physical and chemical research methods are used in biology on the basis that objects of biological research include, in one form or another, physical and chemical forms of the movement of matter and, therefore, are subject to physical and chemical laws.

There are two universal methods in the history of knowledge: dialectical and metaphysical. These are general philosophical methods.

The dialectical method is a method of understanding reality in its inconsistency, integrity and development.

The metaphysical method is a method opposite to the dialectical one, considering phenomena outside of their mutual connection and development.

Since the mid-19th century, the metaphysical method has been increasingly displaced from natural science by the dialectical method.

2. Methods of scientific knowledge

2.1. General scientific methods

The relationship between general scientific methods can also be presented in the form of a diagram (Fig. 2).

Brief description of these methods.

Analysis is the mental or real decomposition of an object into its constituent parts.

Synthesis is the combination of elements learned as a result of analysis into a single whole.

Generalization is the process of mental transition from the individual to the general, from the less general to the more general, for example: the transition from the judgment “this metal conducts electricity” to the judgment “all metals conduct electricity”, from the judgment: “the mechanical form of energy turns into thermal” to the judgment “every form of energy is converted into heat.”

Abstraction (idealization) is the mental introduction of certain changes to the object being studied in accordance with the goals of the study. As a result of idealization, some properties and attributes of objects that are not essential for this study can be excluded from consideration. An example of such idealization in mechanics is a material point, i.e. a point with mass but without any dimensions. The same abstract (ideal) object is an absolutely rigid body.

Induction is the process of deriving a general position from the observation of a number of particular individual facts, i.e. knowledge from the particular to the general. In practice, incomplete induction is most often used, which involves making a conclusion about all objects of a set based on knowledge of only a part of the objects. Incomplete induction, based on experimental research and including theoretical justification, is called scientific induction. The conclusions of such induction are often probabilistic in nature. This is a risky but creative method. With a strict setup of the experiment, logical consistency and rigor of conclusions, it is able to give a reliable conclusion. According to the famous French physicist Louis de Broglie, scientific induction is the true source of truly scientific progress.

Deduction is the process of analytical reasoning from the general to the particular or less general. It is closely related to generalization. If the initial general provisions are an established scientific truth, then the method of deduction will always produce a true conclusion. The deductive method is especially important in mathematics. Mathematicians operate with mathematical abstractions and base their reasoning on general principles. These general provisions apply to solving private, specific problems.

Analogy is a probable, plausible conclusion about the similarity of two objects or phenomena in some characteristic, based on their established similarity in other characteristics. An analogy with the simple allows us to understand the more complex. Thus, by analogy with the artificial selection of the best breeds of domestic animals, Charles Darwin discovered the law of natural selection in the animal and plant world.

Modeling is the reproduction of the properties of an object of cognition on a specially designed analogue of it - a model. Models can be real (material), for example, airplane models, building models, photographs, prosthetics, dolls, etc. and ideal (abstract) created by means of language (both natural human language and special languages, for example, the language of mathematics. In this case, we have a mathematical model. Usually this is a system of equations that describes the relationships in the system being studied.

The historical method involves reproducing the history of the object under study in all its versatility, taking into account all the details and accidents. The logical method is, in essence, a logical reproduction of the history of the object being studied. At the same time, this history is freed from everything accidental and unimportant, i.e. it is, as it were, the same historical method, but freed from its historical form.

Classification is the distribution of certain objects into classes (divisions, categories) depending on their general characteristics, fixing the natural connections between classes of objects in a unified system of a specific branch of knowledge. The formation of each science is associated with the creation of classifications of the objects and phenomena being studied.

2. 2 Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge.

Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge are schematically presented in Fig. 3.

Observation.

Observation is a sensory reflection of objects and phenomena of the external world. This is the initial method of empirical cognition, which allows us to obtain some primary information about the objects of the surrounding reality.

Scientific observation is characterized by a number of features:

· purposefulness (observation should be carried out to solve the research problem);

· systematic (observation must be carried out strictly according to a plan drawn up based on the research objective);

· activity (the researcher must actively search and highlight the moments he needs in the observed phenomenon).

Scientific observations are always accompanied by a description of the object of knowledge. The latter is necessary to record the technical properties and aspects of the object being studied, which constitute the subject of the study. Descriptions of observational results form the empirical basis of science, based on which researchers create empirical generalizations, compare the objects under study according to certain parameters, classify them according to some properties, characteristics, and find out the sequence of stages of their formation and development.

According to the method of conducting observations, they can be direct or indirect.

During direct observation, certain properties and aspects of an object are reflected and perceived by human senses. Currently, direct visual observation is widely used in space research as an important method of scientific knowledge. Visual observations from a manned orbital station are the simplest and most effective method for studying the parameters of the atmosphere, land surface and ocean from space in the visible range. From the orbit of an artificial Earth satellite, the human eye can confidently determine the boundaries of cloud cover, types of clouds, boundaries of the removal of turbid river waters into the sea, etc.

However, most often observation is indirect, that is, carried out using certain technical means. If, for example, until the beginning of the 17th century, astronomers observed celestial bodies with the naked eye, then Galileo’s invention of the optical telescope in 1608 raised astronomical observations to a new, much higher level.

Observations can often play an important heuristic role in scientific knowledge. In the process of observations, completely new phenomena can be discovered, allowing one or another scientific hypothesis to be substantiated. From all of the above, it follows that observations are a very important method of empirical knowledge, ensuring the collection of extensive information about the world around us.

For novice researchers, it is very important not only to have a good knowledge of the basic principles that characterize a thesis or course work as a qualifying scientific work, but also to have at least the most general understanding of the methodology of scientific creativity, because, as modern educational practice in higher educational institutions shows, such researchers have In the first steps towards mastering the skills of scientific work, questions of a methodological nature arise most of all. First of all, they lack experience in organizing their work, in using the methods of scientific knowledge and in applying logical laws and rules. Therefore, it makes sense to consider these issues in more detail.

Any scientific research, from creative conception to the final design of scientific work, is carried out very individually. But it is still possible to define some general methodological approaches to its implementation, which are usually called study in the scientific sense.

The method of scientific research is a way of understanding objective reality. A method is a certain sequence of actions, techniques, and operations.

Depending on the content of the objects being studied, methods of natural science and methods of social and humanitarian research are distinguished.

Research methods are classified according to branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc.

Depending on the level of knowledge, methods of empirical, theoretical and metatheoretical levels are distinguished.

Empirical level methods include observation, description, comparison, counting, measurement, questionnaire, interview, testing, experiment, modeling, etc.

Methods at the theoretical level include axiomatic, hypothetical (hypothetico-deductive), formalization, abstraction, general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy), etc.

Methods of the metatheoretical level are dialectical, metaphysical, hermeneutic, etc. Some scientists include the method of system analysis at this level, while others include it among general logical methods.

Depending on the scope and degree of generality, methods are distinguished:

1) universal (philosophical), operating in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;

2) general scientific ones, which can be used in the humanities, natural and technical sciences;

3) private - for related sciences;

4) special - for a specific science, field of scientific knowledge. A similar classification of methods can be found in the legal literature.

The concepts of technology, procedure and methodology of scientific research should be distinguished from the concept of method under consideration.

Research technique is understood as a set of special techniques for using a particular method, and research procedure is a certain sequence of actions, a method of organizing research.

Methodology is a set of methods and techniques of cognition. For example, the methodology of criminological research is understood as a system of methods, techniques, means of collecting, processing, analyzing and evaluating information about crime, its causes and conditions, the identity of the criminal and other criminological phenomena.

Any scientific research is carried out using certain techniques and methods, according to certain rules. The study of the system of these techniques, methods and rules is called methodology. However, the concept of “methodology” in the literature is used in two meanings:

1) a set of methods used in any field of activity (science, politics, etc.);

2) the doctrine of the scientific method of knowledge.

Each science has its own methodology. Legal sciences also use a certain methodology. Legal scholars define it differently. So, V.P. Kazimirchuk interprets the methodology of jurisprudence as the application of a system of logical techniques and special methods for studying legal phenomena, conditioned by the principles of materialist dialectics.

A similar concept of scientific methodology of law and state is given in a textbook on the theory of state and law: this is the application of a set of certain theoretical principles, logical techniques and special methods for studying state-legal phenomena determined by a philosophical worldview.

From the point of view of A.D. Gorbuzy, I.Ya. Kozachenko and E.A. Sukharev, the methodology of jurisprudence is a scientific knowledge (research) of the essence of state and law based on the principles of materialism, adequately reflecting their dialectical development.

Regarding the last point of view, it should be noted that the concept of methodology is somewhat narrower than the concept of scientific knowledge, since the latter is not limited to the study of forms and methods of knowledge, but studies questions of the essence, object and subject of knowledge, criteria for its truth, boundaries of cognitive activity, etc.

Ultimately, both lawyers and philosophers understand the methodology of scientific research as the doctrine of methods (method) of knowledge, i.e. about a system of principles, rules, methods and techniques designed to successfully solve cognitive problems. Accordingly, the methodology of legal science can be defined as the doctrine of methods for studying state legal phenomena.

There are the following levels of methodology:

1. General methodology, which is universal in relation to all sciences and the content of which includes philosophical and general scientific methods of cognition.

2. Private methodology of scientific research for a group of related legal sciences, which is formed by philosophical, general scientific and private methods of cognition, for example, of state legal phenomena.

3. Methodology of scientific research of a specific science, the content of which includes philosophical, general scientific, private and special methods of knowledge, for example, the methodology of criminology, criminology and other legal sciences.

Methodology and methodology of scientific research

Methods of empirical research level

Quantitative and qualitative methods of scientific research

Special (private scientific) research methods in the field of library, information and documentation activities

Literature

1. The concept of method, methodology and methodology of scientific research

Organizing and conducting scientific research is impossible without relying on scientific methodology and without using appropriate methods. When building a methodological basis for scientific research, it is necessary to clarify the basic concepts (method, technique, methodology, etc.).

) Method is understood as a specific way of researching, constructing and justifying a system of knowledge about a subject, which includes various research techniques.

Another definition can be given: a research method is a method of study based on a certain conceptual apparatus and rules that correspond to the characteristics of the subject of research, the purpose and nature of the problems being solved.

Already studied phenomena, processes, and patterns serve as samples and models for the subsequent study of other phenomena and processes. Therefore, in scientific research, not only the result is important, but also the path to it, the method of cognition, the chain of inferences leading to the conclusion.

) Methodology - a fixed set of methods of practical activity leading to a predetermined result; specifying the method, bringing it to instructions, an algorithm, a clear description of the way of existence.

) Methodology is a system of basic principles, methods, techniques, methods and means of scientific research. The methodology of scientific research presupposes the ability to correctly organize scientific activity using effective working methods, rules and logical conclusions.

) Methodological approach is a group of methods that have a common basis.

) Methodological principle is the fundamental rule, position, normative coordinate of the methodological paradigm.

) A methodological paradigm is a set of fundamental scientific guidelines, principles and basic methodological approaches adopted in the scientific community within the framework of an established scientific tradition in a certain period of time. Ensures the continuity of the development of science and scientific creativity.

There are many types of methods of scientific knowledge. What methods to use for research are determined by the scientist, relying on his own experience and the experience of his predecessors and colleagues. But the decisive criterion for determining the necessary methods is the subject of research.

Types of methods are distinguished by:

· degrees of generality (general scientific and special or particular scientific);

· level of abstraction (empirical and theoretical);

· the nature of the functions performed (quantitative and qualitative).

Let us characterize the main groups of scientific research methods.

General scientific research methods

General scientific research methods are based on such general principles of scientific thinking as induction, deduction, analysis, synthesis, abstraction, idealization, concretization, analogy, comparison, identification, generalization, extrapolation, etc.

Induction is a mental operation based on the logic of generalization of particular facts; conclusion, reasoning from “particular to general”; inference from facts to some general hypothesis.

Deduction is a mental operation that involves the development of reasoning from general patterns to particular facts (“from the general to the particular”).

Analysis is a theoretical research method that involves a mental operation in which the process or phenomenon under study is divided into components for their special and in-depth independent study.

Synthesis is a mental operation during which a complete picture is reconstructed from the identified elements and facts.

Abstraction is a mental distraction from a number of unimportant features (properties, connections) of an object while simultaneously highlighting other features that are of interest to the researcher when solving a specific problem.

Idealization is one of the types of abstraction. The concepts formed as a result of idealization do not exist in reality in a concrete form, but are only thought of, having approximate analogues (images).

Concretization is a process opposite to abstraction, which involves finding a holistic, interconnected, multilateral object.

Analogy - similarity, similarity of different objects, phenomena or concepts in any properties, characteristics or relationships.

Comparison is a method that involves comparing objects in order to identify their similarities and differences, general and special.

Identification is the identification of the object under study with some sample, model, archetype.

Generalization is one of the important mental operations, as a result of which relatively stable properties of objects and their relationships are identified and recorded.

Extrapolation is the spread of trends and patterns discovered in one area to another area.

3. Methods of empirical research level

Methods of the empirical level of research include: observation, description, survey, questionnaire, interviewing, conversation, experiment, monitoring, method of expert assessments, etc.

Observation is the most informative research method, allowing you to see from the outside the processes and phenomena being studied that are accessible to perception. Its essence is that the object being studied should be in normal, natural conditions and should not be influenced by the observer.

Description is a method based on recording information obtained as a result of observation.

A survey is a research method used to collect primary verbal information containing mass judgments of the individuals being studied, their subjective assessments, opinions, and motives for activity. This is the main way to identify public opinion. There are two main types of surveys - questionnaires and interviews.

A questionnaire is a correspondence survey in which all respondents are offered a system of questions with possible answer options (or without them) in an identical printed form.

Interviewing is a face-to-face oral survey based on a developed list of questions.

Conversation is an empirical method that involves personal contact with the respondent.

An experiment is a general empirical research method that is based on strict control over the objects being studied under controlled conditions. An experiment involves interfering with the natural conditions of existence of objects and phenomena or reproducing certain aspects of them in specially created conditions.

Monitoring is constant supervision, regular tracking of research results.

The method of expert assessments is a method of obtaining information about an object with the help of specialists - experts in a certain field. The opinion of a specialist (or a team of specialists) must be based on professional, scientific and practical experience. There are individual and collective expert assessments.

Methods of theoretical level of research

The group of methods at the theoretical level of research includes: modeling, systematization, classification, formalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, axiomatic, historical, dialectical, activity-based, systemic, structural-functional and other methods.

Modeling is a theoretical research method that involves constructing a model (substitute) of real objects. A model is a mental or materially realized system that replaces another system with which it is in a state of similarity. The modeling method allows one to obtain information about the various properties of the phenomena under study based on experiments with models.

Systematization is a mental activity during which the objects being studied are organized into a specific system based on a chosen principle. The most important type of systematization is classification.

Classification is a theoretical method based on ordering the studied objects, facts, phenomena and distributing them into groups based on establishing similarities and differences between them (for example, classification of animals, plants, chemical elements).

Formalization is a description of the meaningful characteristics of an object and the processes occurring in it based on the creation of a generalized sign model (for example, using mathematical or logical symbols).

The ascent from the abstract to the concrete is a universal form of the movement of scientific knowledge, the law of reflecting reality in thinking. A method according to which the process of cognition is divided into two relatively independent stages. At the first stage, there is a transition from sensory-concrete cognition of an object to its abstract definitions. A single object is dismembered, described with the help of many concepts and judgments, turning into a set of abstractions fixed by thinking. The second stage of the process of cognition is the ascent from the abstract to the concrete. Its essence lies in the movement of thought from abstract definitions of an object to the concrete in cognition. At this stage, the original integrity of the object is restored, it is reproduced in thinking in all its concreteness and versatility.

The axiomatic method is a method of constructing a scientific theory in which some statements (axioms) are accepted without proof and then used to obtain the rest of knowledge according to certain logical rules.

In studies related to the study of the history of the development of the object under study, historical methods are widely used: historical-genetic, historical-comparative, historical-typological.

The historical-genetic method is a method that allows one to reveal the sequence of historical development of the object being studied (from its origins to its current state), to show cause-and-effect relationships and patterns of its historical movement.

The historical-comparative (or comparative-historical) method is a method in which a comparative analysis of historical phenomena is carried out, their similarities and differences, general and special, are revealed. (See the "Comparison" method).

The historical-typological method is a method aimed at dividing (ordering) a set of objects or phenomena into qualitatively defined types (classes) based on their common essential features.

The dialectical method (dialectical methodology) is a method (methodology) of cognition of reality, the main principles of which are the recognition of development in all its infinite diversity and the universal connection of everything with everything. Basic dialectical laws: the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones and vice versa; unity and struggle of opposites; denials denials.

The activity method (activity methodology) is a widely used method (methodology) in which an object is comprehensively studied as a specific area of ​​social (human) activity. At the same time, this type of activity is differentiated into parts, components (subject, object, processes, means, result, etc.) and into types, varieties, distinguished according to various characteristics.

Systemic method (system methodology) is a method (methodology) that allows one to study an object not as a set of disparate and isolated objects and phenomena, but as a systemic, holistic formation, that is, a complex of interconnected and interacting elements. The entry of these elements into the system gives them new, integrative qualities that are not inherent in them in their original, separate existence.

The structural-functional method consists in dividing the object under study into its component structural parts and identifying the internal connection, conditionality, relationship between them, as well as determining their functions.

5. Quantitative and qualitative methods of scientific research

Quantitative methods are ways of analyzing phenomena and processes based on quantitative indicators. The most frequently used quantitative methods are statistical, bibliometric, content analysis, and scientometric.

Statistical - a set of interrelated methods aimed at collecting, measuring and analyzing mass quantitative data. Using statistical methods, mass objects and phenomena are studied in order to obtain quantitative characteristics and identify general patterns by eliminating random features of individual single observations.

Bibliometric - a group of quantitative methods with the help of which the structure, dynamics and relationships of various phenomena in the field of library, information and documentation activities are studied. Bibliometric methods include the method of counting the number of publications, the method of analyzing literature citations (“citation index”), thesaurus, content analysis, etc. Using bibliometric methods, the dynamics of the development of documentary flows is studied (by their types, types, topics, authors). etc.); dynamics of indicators of use and circulation of documents; processes of citation of publications are studied; productive types of publications and the most developed thematic areas are identified; the degree of provision of certain areas of scientific research with fundamental works; a core of specialized publications is determined, which will be used to further compile library collections.

Content analysis is one of the bibliometric methods, which also has independent significance. It is used to study large amounts of documents: printed works, regulatory and official documents, reporting and other documentation. The essence of the method is that in the texts of documents certain semantic units (“units of observation”) are identified, which can be the authors and titles of works, type of publication, date of issue, etc. A careful calculation of the identified units and the frequency of their use, with mandatory consideration of the assessments given to them in the texts, makes it possible to identify trends in the development of various phenomena: the information interest of various user groups in certain types, types, genres of documents, the level of information culture, the effectiveness of methods of working with consumers of documentary information, etc.

Scientometric methods are closely related to bibliometric ones and are used for the same purposes. However, the specificity of scientometrics lies in quantitative studies of the structure and dynamics of arrays and flows of not all types of documentary information, but only scientific information.

Qualitative research methods are methods aimed at obtaining such “qualitative data” that make it possible to reveal the meaning of certain social phenomena through an analysis of the structure and dynamics of public opinion. Qualitative methods, in particular, allow us to explore the underlying mechanisms of the process of influence of mass communication on individual consciousness and see the patterns of perception of social information. Qualitative methods are most often used in sociological and marketing research.

The main methods of qualitative research include: in-depth interviews, expert interviews, focus group discussions (interviews), observation, experiment. Let's look at the main ones.

The most well-known and frequently used qualitative method is in-depth interviews. In its process, questions are used, the answer to which is not expected to be a clear “yes” or “no,” but rather a detailed answer. An in-depth interview is an informal, free conversation conducted by an interviewer according to a predetermined plan and based on the use of techniques that encourage respondents to engage in lengthy and detailed discussions on a range of issues of interest to the researcher. During the interview, the respondent's personal opinions, beliefs, motivations and values ​​are explored.

An expert interview is one of the types of in-depth interviews; its main feature is the status and competence of the respondent, who is an experienced participant in the problem being studied. Experts are specialists who know the specific aspects of the phenomenon being studied. In expert interviews, it is not so much the respondent himself who is important, but his expert knowledge in a particular area. In most cases, expert interviews are conducted with representatives of the executive and legislative authorities, scientists, employees of universities and research organizations, employees of non-governmental, private expert or consulting structures, members of expert councils, company executives, etc.

Focus group discussions (interviews) are one of the methods of qualitative research. A focus group is a group of respondents (no more than 10-15 people) united for the purpose of studying a wide range of reactions, opinions and assessments regarding the phenomenon being studied. The essence of the method is that the attention of the participants is focused on the topic or object under study (government programs, socio-political problems, socio-economic situations, communication processes, goods, services, advertising). A focus group discussion or interview is aimed at determining the participants’ attitude to a particular problem, obtaining information about their personal experience, priorities, perception of the object of study, and drawing up a “portrait” of a specific social group. Focus group interviews are conducted in free form according to a pre-developed script. The participants are not familiar with the content of the scenario; it is known only to the moderator (leader), under whose leadership the discussion is taking place. Organizing a discussion in a relaxed atmosphere helps to activate associative connections in the minds of the participants. During focus group discussions, respondents communicate not only with the moderator, but also with each other, which is a source of information that often cannot be obtained in an individual interview.

The main difference between qualitative and quantitative methods is that in the first case, data is collected from a relatively small group of respondents and is not analyzed using statistics, while when using quantitative methods, a large group of people is studied, and the data is further analyzed using statistical methods . However, quantitative and qualitative methods are not competitors, but rather two tools that complement each other. Qualitative methods allow us to understand the essence of the problem, formulate tasks and conceptual apparatus for subsequent quantitative research.

6. Special (private scientific) methods of scientific research in the field of library, information and documentation activities

In addition to the listed groups of methods, there are also special methods of individual sciences (special scientific ones) - mathematical, political science, economics, sociological, psychological, pedagogical, cultural, linguistic, semiotic, etc.

The following special (private scientific) library methods are widely used in library research: analysis of reader forms, bibliographic request logs, reader surveys, sociological and quantitative methods for studying collections and readers, methods of library statistics, and others. Common research methods are also the source study method (a method of studying historical documentary sources on library topics: archival materials, unpublished manuscripts, library reports for different periods of time, memoirs and diaries of librarians) and the bibliographic method (a method of bibliographic “convolution” of information: bibliographic analysis, descriptions, classification of documents, etc.).

In scientific research on documentary topics, special (private scientific) methods are also widely used: source study, archaeographic, analytical-synthetic processing of documents, etc. These methods are actively used by students when performing diploma research.

An indispensable research method is the source study method - a method of studying historical documentary sources: archival and unpublished materials, institutional reports, official regulatory and normative-directive documentation, etc. Using this method, the following are carried out: determining the authenticity of a source (external or textual criticism), determining the reliability the information contained in it (internal criticism), establishing the time and place of creation of the source, analyzing its content, formal and qualitative characteristics, etc.

The archaeographic method is very close to the source method. It is used in research that requires in-depth work with handwritten and written sources: identifying and collecting historical documentary monuments, developing methods for their publication, developing rules for the scientific-critical publication of sources, etc.

Methods of analytical-synthetic processing of documents - a group of methods with the help of which information analysis, description, abstracting, systematization, classification, codification of documents, etc. are carried out.

Ultimately, the choice of method is dictated by many factors, the most important of which are: compliance of the method’s capabilities with solving research problems, heuristics (quality that provides the most optimal result), simplicity and accessibility for the researcher. In order to comprehensively study a subject in scientific (including diploma) research, as a rule, a complex of various methods is used.

library empirical private scientific documentation

Literature

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Orlov A.A. Introduction to pedagogical activity: Workshop: Educational method. village/ A.A. Orlov, A.S. Agafonova. Ed. A.A. Orlova. - M.: Academy, 2007.

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Pedagogical encyclopedic dictionary / Ch. ed. B.M. Bim-Bad. - M., 2007.

Pedagogical technologies: A textbook for students of pedagogical specialties / Under the general editorship. V.S. Kukushina. - M.: ICC “MarT”; Rostov n/a: ICC “MarT”, 2008.

Pityukov V.Yu. Fundamentals of educational technology. Educational and methodological manual. - M.: Publishing house "Gnome and D", 2007.

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