Science and philosophy. Social Sciences

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Characteristic feature of social sciences

The proposition that any person must be a member of some society, and being such a member, he is not interesting as a separate being. Social sciences love to talk about human rights and freedoms, but specific proposals in the form legal norms they are disgusted, since all Gum sciences are non-normative. Again, by an individual person, social sciences always and everywhere mean a certain ideal model of a member of society.

Distinctive features of the social sciences

extra-legal, authoritarian approaches. The study of current legislation and the introduction of specific proposals to it are minimal and random. The total predominance of references to authoritative judgments,
they study not all people, but some aggregates or models of people (individual, randomly taken, and most importantly, each and every person is not included in the scope of these sciences),
The main “object” of research is relationships. Therefore, they study not so much people as what they must learn or have learned.

Differences from normative sciences that study people as a collection of impersonal units

Differences from exact sciences

Anthropology, biology, medicine, etc. They also study not all people, but some populations or models of people. The main difference between these and social sciences is that the task of the former is an extremely accurate description of the object under study, while the task of the latter does not include an accurate description.

Differences from legal sciences

To paraphrase the words of the outstanding memoid M.M. Bakhtin, we can say that

The unification of social and legal (legal) sciences into one whole “is called mechanical,
if its individual elements are connected only in space and time by an external connection, and not
imbued with internal unity sense. Although the parts of such a whole lie nearby and
touch each other, but in themselves they are alien to each other.

Legal sciences also study not so much people as what people must learn or have learned, namely laws and norms.

A text on legal science is written on the basis of direct research into legislation with the aim of improving it. The text of the social sciences is usually written without any regard to the current legislation in order to give a parallel interpretation of the words, terms, and concepts adopted in the legislation. This feature is very remarkable in cultural studies, because every author of a textbook or lecture tries to come up with his own interpretation of the concept of “culture.”

The main difference between legal and social sciences is that the task of the former is the logical systematization of norms in the form of laws, codes and constitutions, and the task of the latter is illogical dogma based on the distortion of words and confusion of concepts.

List of social sciences

Social sciences should include all sciences that contain political, sociological, cultural teachings, teachings about personality, etc. The list of social sciences thus includes the following sciences:

History (in the part in which it contains cultural studies, political science, etc.)
Pedagogy
Psychology (in the part in which it contains the doctrine of personality, etc.)
Regional studies (in the part in which it contains cultural studies, etc.)

Social Sciences

Philosophy. Philosophy studies society from the point of view of its essence: structure, ideological foundations, the relationship between spiritual and material factors in it. Since it is society that generates, develops and transmits meanings, philosophy that studies meanings pays central attention to society and its problems. Any philosophical study necessarily touches on the topic of society, since human thought always unfolds in a social context that predetermines its structure.

Story. History examines the progressive development of societies, giving a description of the phases of their development, structure, structure, features and characteristics. Various schools of historical knowledge place emphasis on different aspects stories. The focus of the classical historical school is religion, culture, worldview, social and political structure of society, a description of the periods of its development and the most important events And characters social history.

Anthropology. Anthropology – literally, “the science of man” – typically studies archaic societies, in which it seeks to find the key to understanding more developed cultures. According to the evolutionist theory, history is a single linear and unidirectional flow of development of society, etc. “primitive peoples” or “savages” live to this day in the same social conditions as all of humanity in ancient times. Therefore, by studying “primitive societies”, one can obtain “reliable” information about the initial stages of the formation of societies that went through other, later and “developed” stages in their development.

Sociology. Sociology is a discipline whose main object is society itself, studied as an integral phenomenon.

Political science. Political science studies society in its political dimension, exploring the development and change of power systems and institutions of society, the transformation of the political system of states, and the change of political ideologies.

Culturology. Culturology views society as a cultural phenomenon. In this perspective, social content manifests itself through culture generated and developed by society. Society in cultural studies acts as a subject of culture and at the same time as the field on which cultural creativity unfolds and in which cultural phenomena are interpreted. Culture, understood in a broad sense, covers the entire set of social values that create a collective portrait of the identity of each particular society.

Jurisprudence. Jurisprudence primarily examines social relations in the legal aspect, which they acquire when fixed in legislative acts. Legal systems and institutions reflect the prevailing trends in social development and combine ideological, political, historical, cultural and value attitudes of society.

Economy. Economics studies the economic structure of various societies, examines the impact of economic activity on social institutions, structures and relationships. The Marxist method of political economy makes economic analysis the main tool in the study of society, reducing social research to clarifying its economic background.

Social Science. Social science summarizes the approaches of all social disciplines. The discipline “Social Science” contains elements of all the above-described scientific disciplines that help to understand and correctly interpret basic social meanings, processes and institutions.

Society is such a complex object that science alone cannot study it. Only by combining the efforts of many sciences can we fully and consistently describe and study the most complex formation that exists in this world, human society. The totality of all sciences that study society as a whole is called social studies. These include philosophy, history, sociology, economics, political science, psychology and social psychology, anthropology and cultural studies. These are fundamental sciences, consisting of many subdisciplines, sections, directions, and scientific schools.

Social science, having emerged later than many other sciences, incorporates their concepts and specific results, statistics, tabular data, graphs and conceptual diagrams, and theoretical categories.

The entire set of sciences related to social science is divided into two types - social And humanitarian.

If the social sciences are the sciences of human behavior, then the humanities are the sciences of the spirit. It can be said differently, the subject of social sciences is society, the subject of humanities is culture. The main subject of social sciences is study of human behavior.

Sociology, psychology, social psychology, economics, political science, as well as anthropology and ethnography (the science of peoples) belong to social sciences . They have a lot in common, they are closely related and form a kind of scientific union. Adjacent to it is a group of other related disciplines: philosophy, history, art history, cultural studies, literary studies. They are classified as humanitarian knowledge.

Since representatives of neighboring sciences constantly communicate and enrich each other with new knowledge, the boundaries between social philosophy, social psychology, economics, sociology and anthropology can be considered very conditional. At their intersection, interdisciplinary sciences are constantly emerging, for example, social anthropology appeared at the intersection of sociology and anthropology, and economic psychology appeared at the intersection of economics and psychology. In addition, there are such integrative disciplines as legal anthropology, sociology of law, economic sociology, cultural anthropology, psychological and economic anthropology, historical sociology.

Let's get acquainted more thoroughly with the specifics of the leading social sciences:

Economy- a science that studies the principles of organizing the economic activities of people, the relations of production, exchange, distribution and consumption that are formed in every society, formulates the grounds for the rational behavior of producers and consumers of goods. Economics also studies the behavior of large masses of people in a market situation. In small and large - in public and private life - people cannot take a step without affecting economic relations. When negotiating a job, buying goods on the market, counting our income and expenses, demanding payment of wages, and even going on a visit, we - directly or indirectly - take into account the principles of economy.

Sociology– a science that studies the relationships that arise between groups and communities of people, the nature of the structure of society, problems of social inequality and the principles of resolving social conflicts.

Political science- a science that studies the phenomenon of power, the specifics social management, relations arising in the process of carrying out government activities.

Psychology- the science of the laws, mechanisms and facts of the mental life of humans and animals. The main theme of psychological thought in antiquity and the Middle Ages is the problem of the soul. Psychologists study stable and repetitive behavior in individual behavior. The focus is on problems of perception, memory, thinking, learning and development human personality. There are many branches of knowledge in modern psychology, including psychophysiology, zoopsychology and comparative psychology, social psychology, child psychology and educational psychology, developmental psychology, occupational psychology, creativity psychology, medical psychology, etc.

Anthropology - the science of the origin and evolution of man, the formation of human races, and normal variations physical structure person. She studies primitive tribes that have survived today from primitive times in the lost corners of the planet: their customs, traditions, culture, and behavior patterns.

Social Psychology studies small group(family, group of friends, sports team). Social psychology is a frontier discipline. She was formed at the intersection of sociology and psychology, taking on tasks that her parents were unable to solve. It turned out that a large society does not directly influence the individual, but through an intermediary - small groups. This world of friends, acquaintances and relatives closest to a person plays an exceptional role in our lives. We generally live in small, not big worlds- in a specific house, in a specific family, in a specific company, etc. The small world sometimes influences us even more than the big one. That is why science appeared, which took it closely and very seriously.

Story- one of the most important sciences in the system of social and humanitarian knowledge. The object of its study is man and his activities throughout the existence of human civilization. The word “history” is of Greek origin and means “research”, “search”. Some scholars believed that the object of studying history is the past. The famous French historian M. Blok categorically objected to this. “The very idea that the past as such can be an object of science is absurd.”

The emergence of historical science dates back to the times of ancient civilizations. The “father of history” is considered to be the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, who compiled a work dedicated to the Greco-Persian wars. However, this is hardly fair, since Herodotus used not so much historical data as legends, legends and myths. And his work cannot be considered completely reliable. There are much more reasons to consider Thucydides, Polybius, Arrian, Publius Cornelius Tacitus, and Ammianus Marcellinus to be considered the fathers of history. These ancient historians used documents, their own observations, and eyewitness accounts to describe events. All ancient peoples considered themselves historiographers and revered history as a teacher of life. Polybius wrote: “lessons drawn from history most surely lead to enlightenment and prepare us for engaging in public affairs; the story of the trials of other people is the most intelligible or the only teacher that teaches us to courageously endure the vicissitudes of fate.”

And although, over time, people began to doubt that history could teach subsequent generations not to repeat the mistakes of previous ones, the importance of studying history was not disputed. The most famous Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote in his reflections on history: “History teaches nothing, but only punishes for ignorance of the lessons.”

Culturology I am primarily interested in the world of art - painting, architecture, sculpture, dance, forms of entertainment and mass spectacles, institutions of education and science. The subjects of cultural creativity are a) individuals, b) small groups, c) large groups. In this sense, cultural studies covers all types of associations of people, but only to the extent that it concerns the creation of cultural values.

Demography studies population - the entire multitude of people who make up human society. Demography is primarily interested in how they reproduce, how long they live, why and in what numbers they die, and where large masses of people move. She looks at man partly as a natural, partly as a social being. All living things are born, die and reproduce. These processes are influenced primarily by biological laws. For example, science has proven that a person cannot live more than 110-115 years. This is its biological resource. However, the vast majority of people live to be 60-70 years old. But this is today, and two hundred years ago average duration life did not exceed 30-40 years. Even today, people in poor and underdeveloped countries live less than in rich and highly developed countries. In humans, life expectancy is determined by both biological, hereditary characteristics, and social conditions (life, work, rest, food).

3.7 . Social and humanitarian knowledge

Social cognition- this is knowledge of society. Understanding society is a very complex process for a number of reasons.

1. Society is the most complex of the objects of knowledge. IN public life all events and phenomena are so complex and diverse, so different from each other and so intricately intertwined that it is very difficult to detect certain patterns in it.

2. In social cognition, not only material (as in natural science), but also ideal, spiritual relationships are studied. These relationships are much more complex, diverse and contradictory than connections in nature.

3. In social cognition, society acts both as an object and as a subject of cognition: people create their own story, and they will know it.

When talking about the specifics of social cognition, extremes should be avoided. On the one hand, it is impossible to explain the reasons for Russia’s historical lag using Einstein’s theory of relativity. On the other hand, one cannot assert that all the methods by which nature is studied are unsuitable for social science.

The primary and elementary method of cognition is observation. But it differs from the observation that is used in natural science when observing the stars. In social science, cognition concerns animate, endowed with consciousness objects. And if, for example, the stars, even after many years of observation of them, remain completely unperturbed in relation to the observer and his intentions, then in public life everything is different. As a rule, a reverse reaction is detected on the part of the object being studied, something that makes observation impossible from the very beginning, or interrupts it somewhere in the middle, or introduces interference into it that significantly distorts the results of the study. Therefore, non-participant observation in social science does not provide sufficiently reliable results. Another method is needed, which is called participant observation. It is carried out not from the outside, not from the outside in relation to the object being studied ( social group), but from within it.

For all its significance and necessity, observation in social science demonstrates the same fundamental shortcomings as in other sciences. While observing, we cannot change the object in the direction that interests us, regulate the conditions and course of the process being studied, or reproduce it as many times as required to complete the observation. Significant shortcomings of observation are largely overcome in experiment.

The experiment is active and transformative. In an experiment we interfere with the natural course of events. According to V.A. Stoff, an experiment can be defined as a type of activity undertaken for the purpose of scientific knowledge, the discovery of objective laws and consisting of influencing the object (process) under study using special tools and devices. Thanks to the experiment, it is possible to: 1) isolate the object under study from the influence of side, insignificant phenomena that obscure its essence and study it in its “pure” form; 2) repeatedly reproduce the course of the process under strictly fixed, controllable and accountable conditions; 3) systematically change, vary, combine various conditions in order to obtain the desired result..

Social experiment has a number of significant features.

1. The social experiment is of a concrete historical nature. Experiments in the field of physics, chemistry, biology can be repeated in different eras, in different countries, because the laws of natural development do not depend on the form and type of production relations, or on national and historical characteristics. Social experiments aimed at transforming the economy, the national-state structure, the education system, etc., can lead to various historical eras, in different countries not only different, but also directly opposite results.

2. The object of a social experiment has a much lesser degree of isolation from similar objects remaining outside the experiment and from all the influences of a given society as a whole. Here, such reliable isolating devices as vacuum pumps, protective screens, etc., used in the process of a physical experiment, are impossible. This means that a social experiment cannot be carried out with a sufficient degree of approximation to “pure conditions”.

3. A social experiment places increased demands on compliance with “safety precautions” during its implementation compared to natural science experiments, where even experiments carried out by trial and error are acceptable. A social experiment at any point in its course constantly has a direct impact on well-being, well-being, physical and mental health people involved in the "experimental" group. Underestimation of any detail, any failure during the experiment can have a detrimental effect on people and no good intentions of its organizers can justify this.

4. A social experiment may not be conducted for the purpose of obtaining direct theoretical knowledge. Conducting experiments (experiments) on people is inhumane in the name of any theory. A social experiment is an ascertaining, confirming experiment.

One of the theoretical methods of cognition is historical method research, i.e. a method that identifies significant historical facts and stages of development, which ultimately makes it possible to create a theory of the object and reveal the logic and patterns of its development.

Another method is modeling. Modeling is understood as a method of scientific knowledge in which research is carried out not on the object of interest to us (the original), but on its substitute (analogue), similar to it in certain respects. As in other branches of scientific knowledge, modeling in social science is used when the subject itself is not available for direct study (say, does not yet exist at all, for example, in predictive studies), or this direct study requires enormous costs, or it is impossible due to ethical considerations.

In his goal-setting activities, from which history is formed, man has always strived to comprehend the future. Interest in the future has especially intensified in the modern era in connection with the formation of the information and computer society, in connection with those global problems that call into question the very existence of humanity. Foresight came out on top.

Scientific foresight represents such knowledge about the unknown, which is based on already known knowledge about the essence of the phenomena and processes that interest us and about their trends further development. Scientific foresight does not claim absolutely accurate and complete knowledge of the future, or its mandatory reliability: even carefully verified and balanced forecasts are justified only with a certain degree of reliability.

Spiritual life of society

Classification scientific activity is not so great, if it is divided into those that have axiom confirmation and those that have an “inaccurate” formulation, then there are only two options. Speaking in terms, science is divided into humanitarian and natural Sciences. There is also the concept of social sciences, which many citizens do not immediately find an explanation for. Let's figure out how the humanities differ from the social sciences.

Humanitarian sciences

As already noted, the humanities do not have exact confirmation and postulate. These include: psychology, economics, philosophy, sociology, jurisprudence. Understanding and acquiring new knowledge human nature and the arts are the most important features of the humanities. This is the normative knowledge of an educated person. By deepening science, the settlement of integrity in relation to man and the core of nature is being explored by scientists and professors.

Although quite recently the humanities were limited in the study of social management, now modern science- on the contrary, seeks to solve the problem of social construction social population. The main direction of which today has gained some progress and interest among many humanistic scientists is the study of society and its capabilities in front of technological discoveries, as well as knowledge of social statistics.

Social Sciences

Social sciences, in addition to the humanities listed above, also cover social circle of research- this is history, jurisprudence, linguistics, rhetoric, political science, pedagogy, cultural studies, geography, anthropology. Such a wide range of sciences studies the historical stages of the past, as well as what may happen in the history of the future. Solves fundamental theorems social society. This science explores human relationships and attitudes.

Even in the recent past, social sciences had no basis and were considered only from the point of view of necessity in a particular area. Today they are relevant for all segments of society. The theory that people will be able to govern themselves through social statistics and research is becoming popular and being considered.

Similarities between the two sciences

Some sciences such as history, political science and sociology are to some extent harbingers of the future, i.e. Guided by the skills of the historical past and analysis of the public political mood of society, political scientists and sociologists can predict an assessment of what may happen in the future. Thus, sociology, history and political science are closely related. Characteristic difference is the fact that political science studies theories, and sociology studies entire social corporations.

Philosophy, political science and psychology have in common common features. All these sciences mainly study social attitudes and human behavior in a given situation. The experience of philosophy advises political scientists on some issues related to the relations of peoples and the role of the state in public welfare. Psychology can also be both a humanitarian and a social science. An opinion about why a person would do this and what motivated him is very appropriate and, to some extent, necessary for the development of the right promising elite.

The sciences that are part of the humanities cannot be standard and isolated by theories alone; they are in demand and embrace the sciences of the social environment. And vice versa - they find common ground in your search.

Difference between humanities and social sciences

If we talk in simple language, then the humanities are aimed at studying man from the point of view of his inner nature: spirituality, morality, culture, ingenuity. In turn, social ones are aimed at studying not only the inner nature of a person, but also his actions in a given situation, his worldview on what is happening in society.
There are several main differences between the humanities and social sciences:

Abstract concepts that identify signs and properties are oriented in humanities. For example, “an experienced person”, in this case it is not the person himself that is considered, but the very experience that he received. Social sciences focus their attention on man and his activities in social society.
To theoretically navigate the study social development societies, social scientists use proven tools and rules. This is rarely practiced in the humanities.

Science and philosophy. Social Sciences

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