Presentation on the topic "Anthropological materialism of L. Feuerbach." Materialism and idealism in science social is the highest form of movement of matter

SCIENCE* - specialized
cognitive activity of communities
scientists aimed at obtaining and
use of new things in practice
scientific knowledge about various kinds
objects, their properties and relationships.
*Lebedev S.A. Philosophy of Science: Glossary of Basic Terms

Materialism and idealism in science

1. System, theoretical, objective
knowledge about reality.
2. Type of social activity.
3. As a social regulatory institution
scientific activity.
4. Social function.*
A.P. Alekseev, G.G. Vasiliev Brief philosophical dictionary

Materialism and idealism in science

Scientific knowledge must answer
certain criteria:
Subject matter;
Reproducibility;
Objectivity;
Empirical and theoretical
validity;
Logical evidence;
Usefulness.

Materialism and idealism in science

Materialism - from lat. materials
real
The theoretical basis is summarized
of existence to matter.
Everything that exists materially, although
not necessarily real.
Being determines consciousness.

Materialism and idealism in science
MATTER
1) any objective reality as everything that is outside
human consciousness;
2) such an objective reality that is fundamentally
can be recorded (reflected, given) using
human sensations (sensory analyzers);
3) an objective substrate in the form of a substance, i.e. something that has
properties to have a chemical structure, weight, length,
the ability to transform, move, etc.;
4) the content of consciousness obtained as a result of external
experience, during the interaction of the sensory stage of cognition with
the external world, with the world of “not-I”;
5) physical reality, that is, the aspect of being, knowledge about
which can be obtained by using
physical methods and means of cognition.

Epicurus Thales Democritus

Materialism and idealism in science
Epicurus
Thales
Democritus

Denis Diderot John Toland Paul Henri Thiry Holbach

Materialism and idealism in science
Denis Diderot
Holbach
John Toland
Paul Henri Thiry

Materialism and idealism in science

Ludwig Büchner
Ludwig Feuerbach
Friedrich Engels

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel Karl Marx V.I. Ulyanov (Lenin)

Materialism and idealism in science
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
Karl Marx
IN AND. Ulyanov (Lenin)

Materialism and idealism in science

DIALECTICS
Philosophical doctrine of universal character
development, its basic laws and their
manifestation in various areas (thinking,
nature, society, spirit).
This understanding of dialectics was introduced and
systematically developed by Hegel, and
was subsequently enshrined in
Marxist-Leninist philosophy.

Materialism and idealism in science

The main provisions of Hegel's dialectic:
1. Development can be represented in the form
removal, when the antithesis removes the thesis.
. Negation;
. Preservation;
. Rising to a higher level.
2. Labor acts as a mutual change
man and nature.
3. History is interpreted as a reciprocal process
formation of human nature.

Materialism and idealism in science

MARXIST PHILOSOPHY
A worldview system based on the concept
socio-historical practice, system of activities on
production and reproduction of life in all its social
aspects and manifestations.
The primary method is the dominant one in society
material production, that is, one or another level of development
productive forces and production relations.
All other subsystems of society are secondary in relation to
the dominant mode of material production and one way or another
differently (adequately or less adequately) serve and express
it (the state, political and legal institutions of society,
forms of social consciousness and worldview - philosophy,
religion, morality, art, etc.).

Materialism and idealism in science

1. Law of unity and struggle
opposites.
2. Law of transition of quantitative
changes in quality.
3. The law of negation of negation.

Materialism and idealism in science

Idealism - from lat. idea idea
The theoretical basis boils down to
the fundamental principle of the spiritual world of nature and
of everything that exists.
Consciousness determines life.

The classical form of idealism is the philosophy of Plato. The peculiarity of Plato's idealism comes down to religious and mythological ideas

Materialism and idealism in science
The classical form of idealism is
Plato's philosophy.
Features of Plato's idealism
comes down to religious and mythological ideas.
In the era of crisis of ancient society,
Neoplatonism develops
fused not only with mythology,
but also with extreme mysticism. This
the peculiarity of idealism is expressed in
the Middle Ages, when
philosophy is completely subordinate
theology.
Plato

Materialism and idealism in science

Augustine the Blessed
Thomas Aquinas

Rene Descartes Immanuel Kant David Hume George Berkeley

Materialism and idealism in science
Rene Descartes
Immanuel Kant
David Hume
George Berkeley

Materialism and idealism in science

Materialism and idealism in science
Sources used:
1. S.A. Lebedev Philosophy of Science: Dictionary of Basic Terms / M.:
Academic Project, 2004. - 320 p.
2. A.P. Alekseev, G.G. Vasiliev Concise Philosophical Dictionary / M.: TK
Welby, Prospect Publishing House, 2004. - 496 pp.
3. G. Skirbekk, N. Gilje History of Philosophy / Translation from English. S.B.
Krymsky. - M.: VALDOS, 2003. - 800 S.
4. E.V. Ushakov Introduction to the philosophy and methodology of science. / M. :
Knorus, 2008. - 592 S.
5. Marxist-Leninist philosophy. Dialectical materialism. /
Ed. 2nd. Ed. Board: A.D. Makarov and others M., 1971. 335 S.

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………...........3

I. Materialism and idealism:

1. The concept of materialism…………………………………………………….4

2. The concept of idealism………………………………………………………...8

3. Differences between materialism and idealism……………….…….12

II. Historical forms of materialism:

1. Ancient materialism……………………………………………...13

2. Metaphysical materialism of the New Age………………………14

3. Dialectical materialism………………………………………….15

III. The difference between metaphysical and dialectical materialism...16

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………17

List of used literature……………………………………………………...18

Introduction

Philosophers want to know what the meaning of human life is. But for this we need to answer the question: what is a person? What is its essence? To determine the essence of a person means to show his fundamental differences from everything else. The main difference is the mind, consciousness. Any human activity is directly related to the activity of his spirit and thoughts.

The history of philosophy is, in a certain sense, the history of the confrontation between materialism and idealism, or, in other words, how different philosophers understand the relationship between being and consciousness.

If a philosopher claims that first a certain idea, a world mind, appeared in the world, and from them all the diversity of the real world was born, then this means that we are dealing with an idealistic point of view on the main issue of philosophy. Idealism is a type and a way of philosophizing that assigns an active creative role in the world exclusively to the spiritual principle; only recognizing his ability for self-development. Idealism does not deny matter, but views it as a lower kind of being - not as a creative, but as a secondary principle.

From the point of view of supporters of materialism, matter, i.e. the basis of the entire infinite number of objects and systems existing in the world is primary, therefore a materialistic view of the world is valid. Consciousness, which is inherent only to man, reflects the surrounding reality.

Target of this work - study the features materialism And idealism .

For achievements goals the following were supplied tasks : 1) study theoretical material on the topic; 2) consider the features of philosophical movements; 3) compare and identify differences between these trends.

Forms materialism and idealism are diverse. There are objective and subjective idealism, metaphysical, dialectical, historical and ancient materialism.

I Materialism and idealism.

1. Materialism

Materialism- this is a philosophical direction that postulates the primacy and uniqueness of the material principle in the world and considers the ideal only as a property of the material. Philosophical materialism asserts the primacy of the material and the secondary nature of the spiritual, ideal, which means the eternity, uncreatedness of the world, its infinity in time and space. Thinking is inseparable from matter, which thinks, and the unity of the world lies in its materiality. Considering consciousness to be a product of matter, materialism views it as a reflection of the external world. Materialistic solution of the second party fundamental question of philosophy- about the knowability of the world - means a conviction in the adequacy of the reflection of reality in human consciousness, in the knowability of the world and its laws. Materialism is characterized by reliance on science, evidence and verifiability of statements. Science has repeatedly refuted idealism, but has not yet been able to refute materialism. Under content materialism is understood as the totality of its initial premises, its principles. Under shape materialism is understood as its general structure, determined primarily by the method of thinking. Thus, its content contains something common that is inherent in all schools and movements of materialism, in their opposition to idealism and agnosticism, and its form is associated with something special that characterizes individual schools and movements of materialism.

In the history of philosophy, materialism, as a rule, was the worldview of advanced classes and strata of society interested in correct knowledge of the world, in strengthening human power over nature. Summarizing the achievements of science, he contributed to the growth of scientific knowledge and the improvement of scientific methods, which had a beneficial effect on the success of human practice and the development of productive forces. The criterion for the truth of materialism is socio-historical practice. It is in practice that the false constructions of idealists and agnostics are refuted, and its truth is undeniably proven. The word “materialism” began to be used in the 17th century mainly in the sense of physical ideas about matter (R. Boyle), and later in a more general, philosophical sense (G.V. Leibniz) to contrast materialism with idealism. A precise definition of materialism was first given by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.

Materialism went through 3 stages in its development .

First the stage was associated with the naive or spontaneous materialism of the ancient Greeks and Romans (Empedocles, Anaximander, Democritus, Epicurus). The first teachings of materialism appear along with the emergence of philosophy in the slave societies of ancient India, China and Greece in connection with progress in the field of astronomy, mathematics and other sciences. A common feature of ancient materialism is the recognition of the materiality of the world, its existence independent of the consciousness of people. Its representatives sought to find in the diversity of nature the common origin of everything that exists and happens. In antiquity, Thales of Miletus believed that everything arises from water and turns into it. Ancient materialism, especially Epicurus, was characterized by an emphasis on the personal self-improvement of man: freeing him from fear of the gods, from all passions and acquiring the ability to be happy in any circumstances. The merit of ancient materialism was the creation of a hypothesis about the atomic structure of matter (Leucippus, Democritus).

In the Middle Ages, materialistic tendencies manifested themselves in the form of nominalism, the doctrine of the “coeternity of nature and God.” During the Renaissance, materialism (Telesio, Vruna and others) was often clothed in the form of pantheism and hylozoism, viewed nature in its integrity and was in many ways reminiscent of the materialism of antiquity - this was the time second stage of development of materialism. In the 16th-18th centuries, in European countries - the second stage of the development of materialism - Bacon, Hobbes, Helvetius, Galileo, Gassendi, Spinoza, Locke and others formulated metaphysical and mechanistic materialism. This form of materialism arose on the basis of emerging capitalism and the associated growth of production, technology, and science. Acting as ideologists of the then progressive bourgeoisie, materialists fought against medieval scholasticism and church authorities, turned to experience as a teacher and to nature as an object of philosophy. The materialism of the 17th and 18th centuries is associated with the rapidly progressing mechanics and mathematics of that time, which determined its mechanistic character. In contrast to the natural philosophers-materialists of the Renaissance, the materialists of the 17th century began to view the last elements of nature as inanimate and qualityless. Remaining generally in the position of a mechanistic understanding of movement, French philosophers (Diderot, Holbach and others) considered it as a universal and integral property of nature, and completely abandoned the deistic inconsistency inherent in most materialists of the 17th century. The organic connection that exists between all materialism and atheism became especially clear among the French materialists of the 18th century. The pinnacle in the development of this form of materialism in the West was Feuerbach’s “anthropological” materialism, in which contemplation was most clearly manifested.

In the 1840s, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels formulated the basic principles of dialectical materialism - this was the beginning third stage of development of materialism. In Russia and the countries of Eastern Europe in the second half of the 19th century, a further step in the development of materialism was the philosophy of revolutionary democrats, which was derived from the combination of Hegelian dialectics and materialism (Belinsky, Herzen, Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, Markovich, Votev and others), based on the traditions of Lomonosov , Radishchev and others. One of the features of the development of dialectical materialism is its enrichment with new ideas. Modern development of science requires that natural scientists become conscious supporters of dialectical materialism. At the same time, the development of socio-historical practice and science requires the constant development and concretization of the philosophy of materialism itself. The latter occurs in the constant struggle of materialism with the latest varieties of idealistic philosophy.

In the 20th century in Western philosophy, materialism developed mainly as a mechanistic one, but a number of Western materialist philosophers also retained an interest in dialectics. Materialism of the late 20th and early 21st centuries is represented by the philosophical direction of “ontological philosophy,” the leader of which is the American philosopher Barry Smith. Philosophical materialism can be called an independent direction of philosophy precisely because it resolves a number of problems, the formulation of which is excluded by other directions of philosophical knowledge.

Main forms materialism in the historical development of philosophical thought are: antique materialism, historical materialism, metaphysical materialism New time And dialectical materialism .

Idealism concept

Idealism- this is a philosophical direction that attributes an active, creative role in the world exclusively to the ideal principle and makes the material dependent on the ideal.

Idealism arose more than two and a half thousand years ago. The term “idealism” appeared only at the beginning of the 18th century. In 1702, the German idealist Leibniz wrote about the hypotheses of Epicurus and Plato, as the greatest materialist and the greatest idealist. And in 1749, the French materialist Diderot called idealism “... the most absurd of all systems.”

Idealism comes from the primacy of the spiritual, immaterial, and the secondary nature of the material, which brings it closer to the dogmas of religion about the finitude of the world in time and space and its creation by God. Consistent idealism opposes materialistic determinism with a teleological point of view. Bourgeois philosophers use the term “idealism” in many senses, and this direction itself is sometimes considered as truly philosophical. In a class society, idealism arises as a scientific continuation of mythological and religious-fantastic ideas. Idealism absolutizes the inevitable difficulties in the development of human knowledge and thereby hinders scientific progress. At the same time, individual representatives of idealism, posing new epistemological questions and exploring the forms of the process of cognition, seriously stimulated the development of a number of important philosophical problems.

In its origin and at all stages of its development, idealism is closely connected with religion. In fact, it arose as a conceptual, conceptual expression of the religious worldview and in subsequent eras served, as a rule, as a philosophical justification and justification for religious faith.

The historical sources of idealism are the animism and anthropomorphism inherent in the thinking of primitive man, the animation of the entire surrounding world and the consideration of its driving forces in the image and likeness of human actions as determined by consciousness and will. Subsequently, the ability of abstract thinking itself becomes the epistemological source of idealism. The possibility of idealism is given already in the first elementary abstraction. The formation of general concepts and an increasing degree of abstraction are necessary moments in the progress of theoretical thinking. However, the incorrect use of abstraction entails the hypostatization of properties, relationships, and actions of real things abstracted by thinking in isolation from their specific material carriers and the attribution of independent existence to these products of abstraction. “Straightforwardness and one-sidedness, woodenness and ossification, subjectivism and subjective blindness – these are the epistemological roots of idealism.” These epistemological roots of idealism are consolidated due to certain social factors, originating in the separation of mental labor from physical labor, in which “... consciousness is able to emancipate itself from the world...”. With the formation of a slave-owning society, idealism becomes a natural historical form of consciousness for the ruling classes, since mental work was originally their privilege.

In contrast to bourgeois philosophers, who count many independent forms of idealism, Marxism-Leninism divides all its varieties into two groups: objective idealism, which takes as the basis of reality a personal or impersonal universal spirit, a kind of super-individual consciousness, and subjective idealism, which reduces knowledge about the world to the content of individual consciousness. However, the difference between subjective and objective idealism is not absolute.

During the period of the general crisis of capitalism, such forms of idealism as existentialism and neopositivism, as well as a number of schools of Catholic philosophy, primarily neo-Thomism, spread. The three named movements are the main varieties of idealism of the mid-20th century, but along with them and within them, in the second half of the century the process of splitting into small epigonic schools continued. The main social reasons for the diversity of forms of modern idealism (phenomenology, critical realism, personalism, pragmatism, philosophy of life, philosophical anthropology, concepts of the Frankfurt school and others) are the deepening process of the collapse of bourgeois consciousness and the desire to consolidate the illusion of “independence” of idealistic philosophy from the political forces of imperialism.

The centuries-old history of idealism is very complex. In a variety of forms at different stages of history, he expressed in his own way the evolution of forms of social consciousness in accordance with the nature of changing social formations and the new level of development of science. The main forms of idealism arose already in Ancient Greece. The classic form of objective idealism was the philosophy of Plato. Its peculiarity is its close connection with religious and mythological ideas. This connection intensifies at the beginning of our era, during the era of the crisis of ancient society, when Neoplatonism developed, fused not only with mythology, but also with mysticism. This feature of objective idealism was even more pronounced in the Middle Ages, when philosophy was completely subordinated to theology (Augustine, Thomas Aquinas). The restructuring of objective idealism, carried out primarily by Thomas Aquinas, was based on a distorted Aristotelianism. The main concept of objective-idealistic scholastic philosophy after Thomas Aquinas became the concept of immaterial form, interpreted as a goal principle that fulfills the will of an extranatural God, who wisely planned the world, finite in time and space.

In medieval philosophy, idealism was represented by scholastic realism; in modern times its largest representatives were: G.V. Leibniz, F.W. Schelling, G. Hegel. Subjective idealism received its most vivid expression in the teachings of the English idealists of the 18th century: J. Berkeley and D. Hume.

Beginning with Descartes, in the bourgeois philosophy of modern times, as individualistic motives strengthened, subjective idealism developed more and more. The epistemological part of Verily's system and Hume's philosophy became a classic manifestation of subjective idealism. In Kant's philosophy, the materialist assertion about the independence of “things in themselves” from the consciousness of the subject is combined, on the one hand, with a subjective-idealistic position about the a priori forms of this consciousness, which substantiates agnosticism, and on the other, with an objective-idealistic recognition of the super-individual nature of these forms.

Philosophical idealism reached its highest flowering in German classical philosophy, which substantiated and developed idealistic dialectics. With the transition of capitalism to the imperialist stage, the dominant feature of idealist philosophy becomes a turn to irrationalism in its various versions. In the modern era, the dominant idealistic trends in bourgeois philosophy are: neopositivism, existentialism, phenomenology (usually intertwined with existentialism), neo-Thomism.

3. Differences between materialism and idealism

These two philosophical trends have competed with each other throughout almost the entire history of philosophy. Materialism is a philosophical orientation that, in contrast to idealism, proceeds from the fact that:

1) the world is material, exists objectively outside and independently of consciousness;

2) matter is primary, and consciousness is a property of matter;

3) the subject of knowledge is the knowable objective reality.

According to its social roots, idealism, in contrast to materialism, acts as a worldview of conservative and reactionary classes that are not interested in the correct reflection of existence.

Since the idealistic or materialistic solution fundamental question of philosophy are mutually exclusive, only one of them can be true. This is the materialist solution, which is confirmed by the history of science, viewed from this angle, as well as by the development of social practice.

“The philosophers were divided into two large camps,” according to how they answered the question about the relationship of thinking to being. “Those who argued that spirit existed before nature... formed the idealist camp. Those who considered nature to be the main principle joined various schools of materialism.”

When exploring the difference between materialism and idealism, it is useful to turn to the teachings of famous philosophers, especially those who became the “fathers” of the main directions of these movements. Democritus considered the founder of philosophical materialism. The essence of his teaching is that the world consists of atoms, i.e. material things. Plato considered the ancestor idealism. The main idea of ​​his teaching: ideas are eternal and are unchangeable, while material objects change and perish.

II Historical forms of materialism

1. Ancient materialism

Ancient materialism- this is the naive (or spontaneous) materialism of the ancient Greeks and Romans, combined with naive dialectics. Ancient science was not divided into separate branches; it has a unified philosophical character: all branches of knowledge are under the auspices of philosophy.

Already the philosophers of the Milesian school took the position of spontaneous materialism. The materialistic worldview is expressed most clearly in the works of Democritus of Abdera. For the entire period of Ancient Greece, Democritus was the most knowledgeable and educated person. Hegel and Marx called him the encyclopedic mind of Greece. Democritus taught that the whole world and all its objects and phenomena consist of atoms and emptiness. The connections of the first principles - atoms (being) lead to the appearance (birth), and their disintegration leads to the disappearance (death) of objects - their transition into emptiness (non-existence). Atoms are eternal, indivisible, unchanging; the smallest elements of matter. Movement is the most important property of atoms and the entire real world. Emptiness: has no density, is single, formless. Being: absolutely dense, plural, determined by its external form. An atom is absolutely dense, without emptiness, and not perceptible to the senses due to its small size. The materialistic ideas of Democritus were fruitfully developed by his younger compatriot Epicurus, as well as by the follower of the two great Greeks, the Roman philosopher Lucretius Carus.

Geocentrist atomists believed that the earth is equally distant from all points of the shell of space and is motionless. Living things on earth arose from non-living things according to the laws of nature without any creator or rational purpose. The main law of the universe: “not a single thing happens in vain, but due to causality and necessity.”

2. Metaphysical materialism of the New Age

Metaphysical ( or mechanical) materialism– this is materialism: 1) opposite to dialectical materialism; 2) denying quality self-development through contradictions; 3) reducing the variety of forms of movement to mechanical movement.

Metaphysical materialism of the 17th and 18th centuries is characterized by the fact that science quickly differentiates, dividing into separate branches that escape the tutelage of philosophy. There is a break between materialism and dialectics; in materialism there are only elements of dialectics under the dominance of a general metaphysical view of the world. Metaphysical materialism (L. Feuerbach) denies the qualitative self-development of being through contradictions and tends to build an unambiguous picture of the world, exaggerating one or another aspect of it: stability, repetition, relativity. The eternal space-time existence of matter and its continuous movement are an undoubted fact for the French materialists of the 18th century.

Metaphysical materialism is the most consistent and least contradictory of all varieties of materialism. Its representatives are usually called F. Bacon, Hobbes, Spinoza, Locke and others. In general terms, the meaning of this doctrine is as follows: matter is a being that is fundamentally unknowable. (“Whoever says that matter is not a thing in itself is thereby an idealist” (Schopenhauer)). An entity cannot be without consciousness, and therefore matter is not an entity, but only an imperfect substance. Movement, time and space are subjective. Consciousness is either an attribute or a mode of matter. Our knowledge about the world (essence) is not knowledge about matter (substance). Substance is indeed independent of our knowledge, but essence is by no means an attribute of matter. Matter is a thing in itself.

3 Dialectical materialism

Dialectical materialism (« diameter") - the doctrine of the most general laws of movement and development of nature, society and thinking, combining a materialistic understanding of reality with dialectics. It is characterized by internal unity, the inseparable fusion of dialectics and the materialist theory of knowledge. In dialectical materialism, materialism and dialectics are organically reunited, so that the complete unity of dialectics (the doctrine of development), logic (the doctrine of thinking) and the theory of knowledge is established.

Strength dialectical materialism became an orientation toward dialectics, which manifested itself in the recognition of the fundamental knowability of the world. It was based on an understanding of the inexhaustibility of the properties and structure of matter and on a detailed substantiation of the dialectic of absolute and relative truth as a principle of philosophical knowledge.

“Diamat” was actually a Soviet state philosophy and at the same time served as the methodological basis of Soviet science. It arose from the transference of Hegelian dialectics into the materialist-monist worldview of the late nineteenth century; the name “materialism” is often used in the sense of realism (a reality independent of thinking and existing outside consciousness).

Diamat is characterized by strict objectivity in the consideration of any things and phenomena; versatility of consideration of the subject being studied, flexibility of concepts; the inextricable connection of scientific ideas, all aspects of scientific knowledge with the concept of matter, nature, ensuring their use as relative and preventing their transformation into an absolute.

III Difference between metaphysical and dialectical materialism

1. Supporters of metaphysical materialism (F. Bacon, Hobbes, Spinoza, Locke) reduced the variety of forms of movement to mechanical movement. Supporters of dialectical materialism (Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Plekhanov, V.I. Lenin) believed that there is 5 types of movement:

1) biological;

2) chemical;

3) physical;

4) psychological;

5) social – the highest form of movement of matter.

2. French materialists of the 18th century (Feuerbach) believed that the world is matter, fundamentally unknowable. Marxist theory, on the contrary, recognized that we know the world basically.

3. Philosophy, and metaphysical materialism in particular, gradually are separated from science. Dialectical materialism served basis for science.

4. Representatives of mechanistic materialism believed that truth is always objective and is independent of our consciousness. Representatives of dialectical teaching were of the opinion that everything in the world subjectively, because unknowable.

Conclusion.

Materialism plays an important methodological role in all areas of scientific knowledge, in relation to all problems of philosophy and theoretical problems of the natural and social sciences. He shows science the right path to understanding the real world. When science is faced with some complex, still unresolved issue, the materialistic worldview excludes its idealistic explanation in advance and focuses on the search for natural laws of development, real yet unknown connections. Rejecting the idea of ​​creation “out of nothing,” materialism puts forward the requirement to look for the natural causes of the phenomena being studied.

Idealism, as a teaching opposite to materialism, promotes the study of the world and its structure from the other, idealistic side. These two areas of philosophy, considered together, present a complete picture of the world.

Ancient materialism shows the origins and prerequisites for the emergence of the trends being studied, which creates the foundation for their further study.

Mechanistic materialism reflects concepts of the world from the point of view of mechanics and other exact sciences. This type of materialism allows you to look at the picture of the world from an accurate and rational perspective.

Dialectical materialism, being fundamentally opposed to idealism, also has epistemological sources diametrically opposed to it. These are: strict objectivity of consideration of any things and phenomena; versatility of consideration of the subject being studied, flexibility and mobility of concepts; the inextricable connection of all scientific concepts, all aspects of scientific knowledge with the concept of matter, nature, ensuring their use as relative (relative) and preventing their transformation into an absolute.

List of used literature

1. COPRs on philosophy.

2. Main philosophical directions / Ed. T.I. Oizerman. - M., 1971.

3. New Philosophical Encyclopedia / Ed. V.S. Stepina, G.Yu. Semgina and others - M.: Mysl, 2001. Volume 2. P. 508.

4. Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary / Ed. E.F. Gubsky, G.V. Korableva. – M.: INFRA-M, 1998. P. 260.

5. Philosophical Dictionary / Ed. I.T. Frolova. - M.: Politizdat, 1981. 4th ed. P. 445.

6. Textbook: Fundamentals of Philosophy / Ed. P.S. Gurevich. – M.: Gardariki, 2002. 4th ed.

7. Philosophical Sciences / Ed. T.I. Oizerman. 1991. No. 7. P. 8 – 13.

8. Complete works / Ed. IN AND. Lenin. Volume 29. 5th ed. P. 322.

9. Works / Ed. K.I. Marx, F. Engels. T. 3. 2nd ed. P. 30.

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On the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy” (1839) The Essence of Christianity (1841) The Basic Provisions of the Philosophy of the Future (1843) The Question of Immortality from the Point of View of Anthropology (1846) On Spiritualism and Materialism, Particularly in Their Relation to Free Will (1866) Eudaimonism (1866- 1869) basic works

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Man is a product of nature, and his mental activity is the only bearer of reason. Only man can think; there is no superhuman divine mind in the world. This is evidenced by data from natural science and all experimental sciences. Ludwig FeuerbachAnthropological materialism

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The new philosophy should proceed not from abstractions, but from sensory data, from experience: “not only the external, but also the internal, not only the body, but also the spirit, not only the thing, but also the Self constitute objects of the senses. Therefore, everything is sensually perceived, if not directly, then indirectly, if not by ordinary crude feelings, then by sophisticated ones, if not through the eyes of an anatomist or surgeon, then through the eyes of a philosopher, therefore empiricism is completely legitimate in seeing the source of our ideas in the senses.” Man as a natural, sensory-bodily being

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Human feelings are qualitatively different from the feelings of animals. The sensation in animals is animal, in humans it is human. The truth of theoretical positions is verified by their comparison with sensory data. “The new philosophy turns man, including nature as the basis of man, into the only, universal and highest subject of philosophy, therefore turning anthropology, including physiology, into a universal science. Man as a natural, sensory-bodily being

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As a result of a generally fair criticism of philosophical idealism, Feuerbach lost something valuable that was contained in the works of his great predecessors, and, above all, Hegel - dialectics, including the dialectics of knowledge.

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Morality, opposed to human nature, is worth little. Therefore, one cannot consider sensual attractions as something sinful. There is no “original sin” on which religious teaching is based. Our vices are failed virtues. They did not become virtues because the conditions of life did not meet the requirements of human nature. Sensuality and Reason

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Criticizing the idealistic interpretation of knowledge and being dissatisfied with abstract thinking, Feuerbach appeals to sensory contemplation. Believing that sensation constitutes the only source of our knowledge.

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Only what is given to us through the senses: sight, hearing, touch, smell, has true reality. With the help of our senses we perceive both physical objects and the mental states of other people. Sensuality and Reason

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The birthplace of the gods is in the heart of man, in his sufferings, hopes, hopes. Unlike a cold mind, the heart strives to love and believe. In religion the whole person is expressed, but in a wrong way. Man believes in gods not only because he has imagination and feelings, but also because he has the desire to be Happy. He believes in a blissful being not only because he has an idea of ​​bliss, but also because he himself wants to be blissful. He believes in a perfect being because he himself wants to be perfect. He believes in an immortal being because he himself does not want to die. Religion

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Feuerbach derived religious consciousness from the peculiarities of human nature, but he understood this nature itself not historically, but abstractly. Hence his interpretation of religion was ahistorical, abstract. The naturalistic approach to human essence prevented him from seeing the social content of religious ideas and their historical character.

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Then, when a person’s love for a person becomes a religious Feeling and replaces traditional religion. Man will achieve on earth what religion promises in heaven. Atheism is the true religion, a religion without God, a religion of human brotherhood and love. Religion

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A person cannot be happy alone, therefore, love for others is a prerequisite for social harmony, the goal of human existence. Communication and the existence of the human essence

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Feuerbach recognizes the existence of both individual and group egoism. The clash of various kinds of group egoisms creates tension and gives rise to social conflicts. Feuerbach speaks of the “entirely legitimate egoism” of the oppressed masses, that “the egoism of the currently oppressed majority must and is exercising its right and will begin a new era of history.” These arguments can be considered as the embryo of historical materialism, but only as an embryo. Ultimately, the philosopher tries to explain social opposites by the anthropological characteristics of people.

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The concept of an object is initially formed in the experience of human communication, and therefore the first object for every person is another person, “You”. It is love for another person that is the path to recognition of his objective existence, and thereby to recognition of the existence of external things in general. From the internal connection of people, based on the feeling of love, altruistic morality arises, which must take the place of the illusory connection with God. Love for God is only an alienated, false form of true love - love for other people. Love as the basis of communication

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The philosophy of Ludwig Feuerbach was the first case of deeply consistent materialism, the main features of which were: a complete break with religion (atheism) and liberation from centuries-old religious influence; an attempt to explain God and religion from a materialistic point of view, based on human nature; materialistic, taking into account the latest achievements of science, explanation of the problems of the surrounding world and man; great interest in socio-political issues; belief in the knowability of the surrounding world.

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“What we do not know, our descendants will know.” L. Feuerbach

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The concept of “matter” and “spirit”. The meaning of the transformation of the concept of “being” into the concept of “matter” in dialectical materialism. State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Tyumen State University Completed by: student of group 976 Shikhaleva O.V. Checked by: Ph.D., Associate Professor I.B. Muravyov Tyumen, 2009



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Plan 1. The concept of “Matter” and “Spirit”. 1.1 The concept of “Matter”. 1.2 Properties of matter. 1.3 The concept of “Spirit”. 2. Historical forms of materialism. 3. The meaning of the transformation of the concept of “being” into the concept of “matter” in dialectical materialism. 3.1 Reasons for the transformation of the concept of “being” into the concept of “matter”. 4. List of literature and sources. 5. Self-tests.



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The concept of "Matter". According to dialectical materialism: Matter is a philosophical category to designate the objective reality given to us in sensations, which is copied, photographed, displayed by our senses, existing independently of them. (V.I. Lenin) Objective reality is everything that exists outside of human consciousness and independently of him.



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The definition of Matter essentially resolves the main question of philosophy, the question of the relationship between matter and consciousness. Matter is primary in relation to consciousness. Primary in time, because consciousness arose relatively recently, and matter exists forever.



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According to the relational concept, space and time are determined by material processes. The philosophical category for designating the position of objects is space. The philosophical category for denoting changes in the states of material objects is time.



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The concept of “Spirit” Spirit is the totality and focus of all functions of consciousness that arise as a reflection of reality, but concentrated in a single individuality, as an instrument of conscious orientation in reality to influence it and, ultimately, to remake it.



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The spirit appears in different forms of existence: as the spirit of an individual (personal spirit), as a general, collective spirit (objective spirit, for example, the spirit of a people) and as an objectified spirit (the totality of completed creations of the spirit, for example, in works of art).



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The spirit has many characteristics, including those that cannot be grasped rationally; Due to such complexity of the spirit as a special phenomenon of existence, its definition in concepts is difficult. Spirit is not a visible thing, it is not at all a thing among things. The spirit is revealed in the subject, not in the object. “Spirit is a different, higher quality of existence than mental and physical existence.



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Historical forms of materialism. Materialism (from Latin materialis - material) is the doctrine according to which matter, and consciousness is secondary. There are 4 stages in the history of materialism:



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1. Spontaneous materialism of the pre-Socratic period. Identifies matter with some type of substance (water, air, fire, etc.). Prominent representatives of this form of materialism are the first Greek natural philosophers: Thales, Anaximenes, Anaximander Heraclitus, Empedocles Thales of Miletus



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3. Mechanical materialism Period (XVII-XVIII centuries) The era of modern times and enlightenment. The world is material, it is a mechanism, the smallest particles of which are atoms.



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4. Dialectical materialism Part of Marxist philosophy. It differs from mechanical materialism in that it considers matter capable of self-development.



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The meaning of the transformation of the concept of “being” into the concept of “matter” In modern times, matter was considered as a beginning that exists in itself. Matter has become substance. Now Being is Matter. A transformation has taken place.



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Reasons for the transformation of being into matter: Philosophers sought to build philosophy on the model of the natural sciences. If this were possible, then we would receive complete knowledge about the world. Philosophers sought to change the world. Marxist philosophy used materialism to justify the need for revolutionary changes in social life.



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List of references and sources References: 1. Lavrinenko V.N. Philosophy: Textbook. Manual.- M.: Yurist, 1996.-512 p. 2. Kokhanovsky V.P. Philosophy: a textbook for higher educational institutions. - Rostov n/d.: “Phoenix”, 1997. - 576 p. 3. Alekseev P.V., Panin A.V. Philosophy: textbook. - M. - 2005. - 608 p. Sources: 1. http://www.filo.ru/ 2. http://filosof.historic/ru/ 3. http://www.gumer.info/



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Tests for self-test 1. Philosophical category for designating the position of objects: a) Motion b) Space c) Time 2. Indicate the correct statement: a) Consciousness exists forever b) Matter arose relatively recently c) Matter is primary in time and exists 3. Representative of ancient atomism was: a) Anaximenes b) Democritus c) Thales 4. Epicurus was a representative of: a) ancient atomism b) dialectical materialism c) spontaneous materialism 5. A representative of what historical stage of materialism compared matter with some kind of substance?: a) dialectical materialism b) ancient atomism c) spontaneous materialism



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Tests for self-test 6. Representatives of mechanical materialism argued: a) The world is a mechanism, the smallest particles of which are atoms. b) Matter is capable of self-development 7. What materialism is part of Marxist philosophy?: a) Mechanical b) Dialectical c) Spontaneous 8. Mechanical materialism belongs to the period: a) Modern times b) Antiquity c) Middle Ages 9. Objective reality is: a) the totality and focus of all functions of consciousness b) that which exists outside of human consciousness and independently of it c) Philosophical category to designate the change of states of material objects 10. Representatives of what stage of materialism believed that the unity of the world is ensured thanks to substance?: a) ancient atomism b) dialectical materialism c) spontaneous materialism