Domestic and foreign policy (expansion of Russian borders) in the 17th century

The most important task of foreign policy in the reign. Alexei Mikhailovich was the return of the Smolensk, Chernigov and Seversk lands lost during the Time of Troubles and intervention. Solving this problem has become more complicated due to the struggle of the Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples for reunification with Russia.

According to the Union of Lublin (1569), which united Poland and Lithuania into a single state, Belarus and most of Ukraine were annexed to the Polish Crown. The Polish gentry rushed to these vast and fertile lands, who received land holdings and profitable positions here. Serfdom in Poland took shape back in 1557 and then spread to Ukrainian and Belarusian lands. The Catholic clergy set as its goal the integration of the Orthodox population into the Catholic Church. The means to this was the union concluded in 1596 in Brest between the Orthodox and Catholic churches, under which the Western Russian Church retained its rituals and customs, but recognized Catholic dogmas and the authority of the Pope. Part of the clergy and a huge number of laity refused to accept the union. As a result, a double church hierarchy emerged here: along with the Uniate one, an Orthodox metropolitanate was created. Direct persecution of Orthodoxy began. Western Russian lands became the arena of the population's struggle against oppression by the Polish gentry.

The Zaporozhye Sich, inhabited by the Dnieper Cossacks, became the main center of the struggle. Just as from Muscovite Rus' a “free” road led to the Don, so from Rus', subject to Poland, such a road led to the steppes of the Lower Dnieper region. Many brave and freedom-loving Cossacks flocked here and built fortifications for themselves on the islands of the Lower Dnieper. The local free Cossacks have long had their own harsh, but democratic military organization with the election of atamans, the resolution of issues of war and peace by the entire Cossack “circle” and defending the southern borders from the Crimean Khanate. From the end of the 16th century. An almost continuous series of Cossack uprisings against Poland began. The Polish government tried to organize the Ukrainian Cossacks and attract them to their service. In the Kyiv region, an army of “registered” (listed) Cossacks was formed, who, however, went over to the side of the rebellious Cossacks and turned their weapons against the Poles.

A series of Cossack riots, brutally suppressed by the Polish government, ended in 1648 with a successful uprising led by the famous head of the Zaporozhye army, Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky. According to the Peace of Zborov (1649) with the Poles, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth recognized Khmelnytsky as hetman of Ukraine, three voivodeships came under his autonomous rule - Kiev, Chernihiv and Bratslav, where the deployment of Polish troops was prohibited. The number of the hetman's registered troops was 40 thousand people. However, the conditions of the Peace of Zborov turned out to be unenforceable for both sides, and in 1651 the war resumed. According to the new Belotserkovsky Treaty, unfavorable for the Western Russian population, the number of registered Cossacks was reduced to 20 thousand, and the hetman was to be under the authority of the crown hetman and had no right of foreign relations. Only the Kiev Voivodeship remained under his rule.

B. Khmelnitsky turned to the Moscow Tsar with a request to accept the Zaporozhye army and all of Ukraine under the protection of the Russian Tsar. The Zemsky Sobor, convened in Moscow in 1653, decided to provide assistance to the hetman. War was declared on Poland. Moscow troops took Smolensk and occupied all of Belarus and Lithuania, including Vilna. At the Pereyaslav Rada (council) in 1654, Ukraine decided to join Russian state, which recognized the election of the hetman, the local court and other authorities that arose during the war. Russia confirmed the class rights of the Ukrainian nobility. Ukraine received the right to establish diplomatic relations with all countries except Poland and Turkey, and to have registered troops of up to 60 thousand people. Taxes were supposed to go to the royal treasury. Thanks to the reunification of Ukraine with Russia, it was possible to return the Smolensk and Chernigov lands lost during the Time of Troubles.

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth did not recognize the decisions of the Pereyaslav Rada and waged war with Russia (1654-1667). Exhausting and protracted, it ended in 1667 with the conclusion of the Truce of Andrusovo for 13.5 years. Russia abandoned Belarus, but retained Smolensk and Left Bank Ukraine with Kiev.

The largest foreign policy event was the war with Turkey (1677-1681), which declared its claims to Left Bank Ukraine. It ended with the Peace of Bakhchisarai, which established that the Dnieper serves as the border between Russia and Turkey, and the affiliation of Kyiv with Russia was confirmed.

At this time, Austria and Poland, realizing the strengthening of the Ottoman Empire, created the Holy League under the patronage of the Pope, in which all Christian countries, including Russia, were supposed to participate. Being an outstanding diplomat and statesman, V.V. Golitsyn used his entry into the League to quickly sign the “Eternal Peace” with Poland (1686) on the terms of the Truce of Andrusovo and significant territorial concessions on its part. Under his command, the Russian army launched two unsuccessful campaigns against the Crimean Khanate (1687, 1689), which was a vassal state of Turkey. The campaigns did not bring Russia any territorial gains, and their result showed that the country was not yet ready to defeat a strong enemy. Nevertheless, the main task of the Holy League was completed: Russian troops distracted the forces of the Crimean Khan, who did not side with the Turks in the battles with the Austrians and Venetians.

The needs of economic, political and cultural development Russia was also determined by its main foreign policy tasks.

1.1. The return of territories lost during the Time of Troubles, and in the future - the annexation of Ukrainian and other lands that were part of Ancient Rus'. In addition to religious and national impulses that pushed for unification with the related Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples, a significant role was played here by the desire to obtain new arable land, which was due to the extensive nature of agriculture, as well as the desire of the state to increase the number of service people and taxpayers.

1.2. The struggle for access to the Baltic and Black Seas was determined, on the one hand, by Russia’s desire to establish economic ties with Europe, without which its backwardness could not be overcome, and on the other hand, by the need to ensure the security of its southern borders, to protect them from the predatory raids of the vassal of the Ottoman Empire - the Crimean khan.

1.3. Further advancement to the east in order to exploit the natural resources of Siberia (Russian people sought to enrich themselves through the production of sable, which had already been exterminated in the European part, but continued to be the main object of export trade) and the establishment of a “natural border” on the Pacific Ocean.

Some of the settlers were those fleeing a heavy tax burden or serfdom. In addition, the movement to the east demonstrated the desire of the Old Believers to escape persecution and gain the opportunity to practice the old faith.

2. Obstacles to solving foreign policy problems

2.1. Economic and military backwardness of Russia. IN Western Europe during the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), qualitative changes occurred in the organization of the armed forces, battle tactics and weapons; the main striking force was the mercenary, professional infantry, reinforced by field artillery. In Russia, the basis of the army continued to be the noble cavalry, which successfully fought against the “splinters” of the Golden Horde, but was unable to withstand the advanced armies of Europe.

2.2. Dependence on weapons imports. Rearmament and tactical retraining of the army Russian government tried to ensure through the import of weapons and the hiring of foreign officers, which made it dependent on the leading European countries. On the eve of the Russian-Polish War of 1654-1667. Russia purchased 40 thousand muskets and 20 thousand pounds of gunpowder from Holland and Sweden, which amounted to 2/3 of its weapons. The situation was further aggravated by the fact that Russia's only seaport - Arkhangelsk - was extremely vulnerable from Sweden, which continued to lay claim to the northern Russian lands. These circumstances predetermined the aggravation of Russian-Swedish relations.

2.3. Diplomatic and cultural isolation of Russia, which in the West was perceived as an eastern backward country, of interest only as an object of expansion. The political border of Europe at that time ran along the Dnieper.

Thus, a vicious circle developed: Russia’s economic and military backwardness, its cultural isolation were largely caused by isolation from maritime trade communications, but it was possible to make a breakthrough, that is, to overcome the Turkish-Polish-Swedish barrier that stood on its way to Europe , only by creating a powerful army and breaking through the diplomatic blockade.

3. Western direction. Fight for Ukraine

3.1. Smolensk War (1632-1634). In 1632, taking advantage of the international situation, and also harboring hopes that after the death of Sigismund III, internal strife would begin in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia, miscalculating its forces, began a war to revise the Deulin agreements.

The Smolensk War due to diplomatic blunders (the Polish king Wladislav managed to agree with the Crimean Tatars on joint actions), the slowness of the Russian troops led by the boyar M. B. Shein, and most importantly, the weakness of the army, composed mainly of servicemen (having learned about the threat of Crimean detachments advancing deep into Russia, they left the army and went to their estates), ended with the signing in July 1634. Polyanovsky world. Through it, cities captured by the Russians were returned to Poland. initial stage war, but Vladislav renounced his claims to the Russian throne.

Voivode Shein and A.V. Izmailov were declared to be the culprits of the defeat, and their heads were cut off.

3.2. Liberation movement in Ukraine.

. Reasons for movement. IN 1648 In Ukraine, another uprising broke out, caused by social oppression, political, religious and national inequality, which the Ukrainian and Belarusian Orthodox population experienced while being part of the Catholic Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

. Zaporozhye Sich. The instigators of the protest were the Zaporozhye Cossacks. Having settled at the Dnieper rapids, they, like the Don Cossacks, did not engage in agriculture, retained autonomy, choosing their elders, carried out guard duty, repelling the raids of the Crimean Tatars and receiving rewards for this from the Polish government. But the cash salary was received only by those Cossacks who were included in the list (registry). The Zaporozhye Sich was replenished with fugitives, but the register remained unchanged, which strained relations between the Cossacks and the authorities.

. First victories. The uprising was led by the elected hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky. His troops, reinforced by peasants and townspeople who came from Ukraine and Belarus, defeated Polish troops in a number of battles and occupied Kyiv in December 1648. In August 1649 after the rebel victory healthy, Overshadowed by the betrayal of their ally, the Crimean Khan, bribed by the Poles, a compromise peace treaty was signed. According to it, the number of registered Cossacks increased to 40 thousand, in three voivodeships - Kiev, Chernigov and Bratslav - only Orthodox Christians could hold positions, which sharply limited the power of the Polish gentry. However, feudal relations remained, and the lords could return to their possessions.

B. Khmelnitsky, realizing the fragility of the results achieved and the weakness of the rebels, more than once turned to the Russian government for help, expressing Ukraine’s readiness to join Russia. However, realizing that this would lead to war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and taking into account Russia’s unpreparedness for it, the government did not dare to satisfy the hetman’s request.

. Defeats of the rebels. Help to Russia. The renewed hostilities confirmed the validity of B. Khmelnitsky’s fears. In 1651, near Berestechko, his troops were defeated, and the signed Belotserkovsky Treaty reduced the Cossack register to 20 thousand and left restrictions for the Polish gentry only in the Kiev Voivodeship. After the defeat in the fall of 1653, the threat of complete defeat of the rebel forces loomed.

Russia could no longer allow this, since with such a development of events it would lose real possibility achieve their foreign policy goals in the western direction. In the decision Zemsky Sobor of 1653 on the acceptance of Ukraine “under the high hand” of the Russian Tsar The influence of the idea “Moscow is the third Rome”, which intensified in connection with church reform, also had an impact.

3.3. The accession of Ukraine to Russia.

. Ukrainian Rada in Pereyaslav V January 1654 made a decision to annex Ukraine to Russia, which provided it with significant independence. The elective Cossack government, headed by the hetman, remained, who, for example, had the right to foreign policy relations with all countries, with the exception of Poland and Turkey.

But soon a gradual restriction of the autonomous rights of Ukraine and the unification of governing bodies began in order to fully integrate it with Russia. These processes developed until the end of the 18th century.

. Reasons for joining:

Religious and ethnic community of the Russian and Ukrainian peoples;

Their common historical past and joint struggle against external enemies;

The specific historical situation in mid-17th century c., when for Ukraine maintaining independence seemed unrealistic and it was necessary to choose the “lesser evil,” that is, to join (and for many, reunite) with Russia, which was close in culture and faith, which also promised it to maintain internal independence;

The accession also met the interests of Russia (see paragraph 1.1.).

3.4. War with Poland and Sweden. The decision of the Zemsky Sobor in 1653 caused a war with Poland (1654-1667).

. The first stage of the Russian-Polish war. At first it was successful, and already in 1654 Russian troops captured Smolensk and a number of cities in Belarus, meeting with the support of the local population.

. War with Sweden (1656-1658). Sweden took advantage of Poland's failures, striving for hegemony in this region and turning the Baltic Sea into a “Swedish lake”. In addition, the Swedes did not want Russia to strengthen, and in 1655 their troops occupied Warsaw. Strong Sweden posed a greater threat to Russia than defeated Poland, therefore, having concluded a truce with it, Russia entered the war with Sweden. But competition with one of the most advanced armies in Europe was beyond the strength of the Russian troops, and in addition, Sweden signed peace with Poland in 1660. Due to the impossibility of continuing the war, Russia 1661 went to the signing Peace of Kardis, according to which she returned the lands she had conquered in Livonia and again lost access to the sea (the conditions of the Stolbovo Peace were restored).

The second stage of the Russian-Polish war. Poland, having received a respite, managed to regain strength and continue the war with Russia. In addition, after the death of Khmelnitsky, part of the Cossack leadership took the side of Poland. The war became protracted, successes alternated with defeats. But in the end 1667 Russia achieved signing Truce of Andrusovo, along which Smolensk was returned to her and the lands of Left Bank Ukraine were crossed. Kyiv, located on the right bank of the Dnieper, was given up for two years, but was never returned to Poland.

The terms of this truce were fixed "Eternal Peace" 1686 city, which secured Kyiv for Russia and became its major diplomatic victory.

4. Russia's relations with Crimea and the Ottoman Empire

4.1. Russian-Turkish War 1677-1681 The reunification of part of Ukraine with Russia provoked opposition from the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire behind it, which launched a war against Russia. In 1677, Russian-Ukrainian troops managed to defend the strategically important fortress of Chigirin, besieged by superior enemy forces. The stubborn resistance of Russia forced the weakened by this time Porto sign in 1681 in Bakhchisaray A 20-year truce with Russia, according to which its acquisitions were recognized, and the lands between the Dnieper and Bug were declared neutral.

4.2. European countries, in the face of Ottoman expansion, tried to unite their efforts. IN 1684 The Holy League was created - a coalition consisting of Austria, Poland and Venice, which also counted on the support of Russia. It was this interest that prompted Poland to sign the “Eternal Peace” and abandon Kyiv. This led to a breakthrough in Russia's diplomatic isolation and its rapprochement with Poland, which then contributed to the solution of the main foreign policy task - securing access to the sea.

4.3. New war. Having assumed obligations towards the Holy League, the Moscow government broke the truce and in 1686 declared war on the Porte. But attempts V. V. Golitsyna V 1687 and 1689 the capture of Crimea ended in failure, although they helped the allies on the western front.

5. East direction

The move to the east was less stressful for the country. During the 17th century. Russian explorers advanced from Western Siberia to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. As they advanced, they created strongholds: Krasnoyarsk fort, Bratsk fort, Yakut fort, Irkutsk winter quarters, etc. They collected yasak- fur tax.

At the same time, peasant colonization of the arable lands of Southern Siberia began. By the end of the 17th century. The Russian population of the region was 150 thousand people.

6. Conclusions

During the 17th century. Russia was inconsistent, periodically retreating and accumulating forces, but still solved tasks within its power. But the overall result of its foreign policy was small, and acquisitions were obtained through maximum effort and enormous financial costs. The main strategic tasks - gaining access to the seas and reunifying Russian lands - remained unresolved.

Russian foreign policy in the 17th century.

The main tasks and directions of Russian foreign policy.

The needs of Russia's economic, political and cultural development also determined its main foreign policy objectives.

Return of territories lost during the Time of Troubles, in the future - the annexation of Ukrainian and other lands that were part of Ancient Rus'. In addition to religious and national impulses pushing for unification with the related Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples, a significant role was played by the desire to obtain new arable land, which was due to the extensive nature of agriculture, as well as the desire of the state to increase the number of service people and taxpayers.

The struggle for access to the Baltic and Black Seas was determined, on the one hand, by Russia's desire to establish economic ties with Europe, without which its backwardness could not be overcome, and on the other, by the need to ensure the security of its southern borders, to protect them from the predatory raids of the vassal of the Ottoman Empire - the Crimean Khan.

Further advance to the east in order to exploit the natural resources of Siberia (the Russian people sought to enrich themselves by mining sable, which had already been exterminated in the European part, but continued to be the main object of export trade) and to establish a “natural border” on the Pacific Ocean. Some of the settlers were those fleeing a heavy tax burden or serfdom. In addition, the movement to the east demonstrated the desire of the Old Believers to escape persecution and gain the opportunity to practice their faith.

But there were certain obstacles solving these foreign policy problems and they were as follows:

- Economic and military backwardness. In Western Europe, the main striking force was mercenary professional infantry, reinforced by field artillery. In Russia, the basis of the army continued to be the noble cavalry, which successfully fought against the “splinters” of the Golden Horde, but was unable to withstand the advanced armies of Europe.

- Dependence on weapons imports. The Russian government tried to ensure the rearmament and tactical retraining of the army by importing weapons and hiring foreign officers, which made it dependent on leading European countries. The situation was further aggravated by the fact that Russia's only seaport - Arkhangelsk - was extremely vulnerable from Sweden, which continued to lay claim to the northern Russian lands. These circumstances predetermined the aggravation of Russian-Swedish relations.

- Diplomatic and cultural isolation of Russia , which in the West was perceived as an eastern backward country, of interest only as an object of expansion. The political border of Europe at that time ran along the Dnieper.

Thus, a vicious circle developed: Russia’s economic and military backwardness, its cultural isolation were largely caused by isolation from sea trade communications, but it was possible to make a breakthrough, i.e. overcome the Turkish-Polish-Swedish barrier that stood on its way to Europe , only by creating a powerful army and breaking through the diplomatic blockade.

WESTERN DIRECTION. FIGHT FOR UKRAINE.

Smolensk War 1632 - 1634 Russia, having poorly calculated its forces, started a war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth for the revision of the Deulin agreements - ( V1618 according to the Deulin Agreement, Russia lost the Smolensk and Seversk lands.) What did Russia count on, not being ready for war? Taking advantage of the international situation, she hoped that after the death of Sigismund III, internal strife would begin in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which did not happen. In addition, the Polish king Wladislav managed to agree with the Crimean Tatars on joint actions. As a result, due to the slowness of the Russian troops led by boyar M.B. Shein, and most importantly, due to the weakness of the army, composed mainly of service people, who, having learned about the threat of Crimean detachments advancing deep into Russia, began to leave the army and go to their estates, in July 1634, the Polyanovsky Peace Treaty was signed between Russia and Poland. According to it, cities captured by the Russians at the initial stage of the war were returned to Poland, but at the same time Vladislav renounced his claims to the Russian throne.

Liberation movement in Ukraine. The accession of Ukraine to Russia. IN 1648 g . in Ukraine, another uprising broke out, caused by social oppression, political, religious and national inequality, which the Ukrainian and Belarusian Orthodox populations experienced while being part of Catholic Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The uprising was led by the chosen one Hetman Bohdan Khmelnitsky, under whose leadership the liberation struggle of the Ukrainian people continued with varying success from 1648 - 1654 B. Khmelnitsky repeatedly turned to the Russian government for help, expressing Ukraine's readiness to join Russia. The Russian government, realizing that this would lead to a war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, for which it was not ready, did not dare to satisfy the hetman’s request. However, after the next defeat of the rebels, it became clear that For the final liberation, Ukraine needs Russian help, which after decisions of the Zemsky Sobor of 1653. about accepting Ukraine “under the high hand” of the Russian Tsar, in October 1653 declared war on the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It should be noted that This decision was also influenced by the influence of the idea “Moscow is the third Rome”, which intensified in connection with church reform. After the Pereyaslav Rada in January 1654 . Ukraine became part of Russia with the rightsautonomy - The tsarist government recognized the election of the Ukrainian hetman and the right to operate local self-government authorities that arose during the liberation struggless.

REASONS FOR UKRAINE'S ACCESSION TO RUSSIA.

Religious and ethnic community of the Russian and Ukrainian peoples.

Their common historical past and joint struggle against external enemies.

The specific historical situation in the middle. 17th century, when for Ukraine maintaining independence seemed unrealistic and it was necessary to choose the “lesser evil”, i.e. to join (and for many, to reunite) with Russia, which is close in culture and faith, which also promised it to preserve its internal independence.

The accession also met the interests of Russia, as discussed above.

3. War with Poland and Sweden. The decision of the Zemsky Sobor in 1653 caused a war with Poland1654 - 1667 On the first stage of the Russian-Polish war Russian troops were successful. They captured Smolensk and a number of cities in Belarus, while meeting the support of the local population. But Sweden took advantage of Poland’s failures, striving for hegemony in this region and turning the Baltic Sea into a “Swedish lake”. In addition, the Swedes did not want Russia to strengthen, and in 1655 their troops occupied Warsaw. Strong Sweden posed a greater danger to Russia than defeated Poland, therefore, having concluded a deal with it (with Poland) truce, Russia entered the war with Sweden. But competition with one of the most advanced armies in Europe was beyond the strength of the Russian troops. Due to the impossibility of continuing the war Russia in 1661 agreed to sign the Peace of Kardis, according to which she returned the conquered lands in Livonia and again lost access to the sea - i.e. the conditions of the Stolbovo peace were restored. Poland , having received a respite, managed to regain strength and continue the war with Russia. In fact, the second stage of the Russian-Polish war began. The war became protracted, successes alternated with defeats. In addition, after the death of Khmelnitsky, part of the Cossack leadership took the side of Poland. As a result, in 1667, Russia achieved the signing of the Truce of Andrusovo, along which Smolensk was returned to her and the lands of Left Bank Ukraine were crossed. Kyiv, located on the right bank of the Dnieper, was given for two years, but was never returned to Poland. The terms of this truce were fixed "Eternal Peace" 1686, which secured Kyiv for Russia and became its major diplomatic victory.

4. Russia's relations with Crimea and Ottoman Empire.

- Russian-Turkish War 1677-1681 The reunification of part of Ukraine with Russia caused opposition Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire standing behind him, which started a war against Russia. Russian-Ukrainian troops in 1677. managed to defend a strategically important Chigirin fortress, besieged by superior enemy forces. The stubborn resistance of Russia forced the weakened by this time Porto signed a 20-year truce with Russia in 1681 in Bakhchisarai , according to which its acquisitions were recognized, and the lands between the Dnieper and Bug were declared neutral.

- European countries in the face of Ottoman expansion they tried to unite their efforts.In 1684 it was created Holy League - coalition as part of Austria, Poland and Venice, which also counted on Russian support. It was this interest that prompted Poland to sign the “Eternal Peace” and abandon Kyiv (as discussed above). This led to a breakthrough in Russia’s diplomatic isolation and its rapprochement with Poland, which then contributed to the solution of the main foreign policy task - providing access to the sea. Having assumed obligations towards the Holy League, the Moscow government broke 20-year truce of Bakhchisarai 1681 and in 1686 declared war on the Porte. But attempts V.V.Golitsyna in 1687 and 1689 the capture of Crimea ended in failure, although they helped the allies on the western front.

5. Eastern direction.

The move to the east was less stressful for the country. Throughout 17th century Russian explorers - V. Poyarkov, F. Popov, S. Dezhnev, E. Khabarov and others, carrying out their intelligence activities, advanced from Western Siberia up to the shores of the Arctic and Pacific oceans. As they advanced, they created strongholds: Krasnoyarsk fort, Bratsk fort, Yakut fort, Irkutsk winter quarters, etc. From the local population that became part of Russia, they collected yasak - fur tax. At the same time it began peasant colonization arable lands of Southern Siberia. By the end of the 17th century. The Russian population of the region was 150 thousand people.

Conclusions.

During the 17th century, Russia was inconsistent, periodically retreating and accumulating forces, but still solved tasks within its power. But the overall result of her foreign policy was small. In addition, all acquisitions were obtained by her with maximum effort and enormous financial costs. The main strategic tasks - gaining access to the seas and reunifying Russian lands - remained unresolved.

International position of Russia in the 17th century. was difficult.

Foreign policy tasks:

• The return of territories lost as a result of the Time of Troubles, the annexation of Ukrainian and other lands that were part of Ancient Rus'.
• Achieving access to the Baltic and Black Seas
• Further advance to the east

Economic and military backwardness of Russia: the palace cavalry is not able to withstand the powerful armies of Europe. Dependence on weapons imports.
They tried to ensure rearmament by importing weapons and hiring foreign officers, which made it dependent on European countries (Holland and Sweden).

The port of Arkhangelsk is vulnerable from Sweden. Diplomatic and cultural isolation of Russia (a backward eastern country).

Thus, isolation could be overcome only by creating a powerful army and breaking the diplomatic blockade.

Smolensk War (1632 - 1634): one of the elements of foreign policy of the 17th century

• The struggle for the revision of the Deulin agreements
• Due to diplomatic blunders (the Polish king Wladislaw agreed with the Crimean Tatars on joint actions)
• The slowness of the Russian troops led by boyar Shein
• Weakness of the army (Serving people left the army)
• As a result, the Peace of Polyanovsky was signed (the cities captured by the Russians were returned, Vladislav renounced his claims to the Russian throne)

Liberation movement in Ukraine - Breakthrough of foreign policy of the 17th century

Reasons for movement:

1648 - an uprising broke out in Ukraine, caused by social oppression, political, religious, national inequality, which the Ukrainian and Belarusian Orthodox population experienced while being part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

1596 - Uniate Church.

Zaporozhye Sich: did not engage in agriculture, retained autonomy, had an elected elder, served as a guard, repelled the raids of the Crimean Tatars and received rewards from the Polish government (but only registered Cossacks). The Zaporozhye Sich increased due to the fugitives, but the rest did not change -> social tension. This was a consequence of the foreign policy of the 17th century.

The uprising was led by Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky. In 1648 occupied Kyiv in August 1649. After the victory at Zbrov (betrayal of the Crimean Khan), a peace treaty was signed. The number of registered Cossacks increased to 40 thousand. In the Kyiv, Chernigov, and Bratslov lands, positions were occupied by Orthodox Christians.

Resumption of hostilities. 1651 - defeated at Berestechko. The Belotserkov Treaty reduced the Cossack register to 20 thousand, leaving a limit for Poles in the Kiev Voivodeship. 1653 — the threat of complete defeat loomed. In 1653 — The Zemsky Sobor decided to accept Ukraine under the “high hand” of the Russian Tsar.

Ukraine's annexation by Russia during 17th century foreign policy

Ukrainian Rada in Pereyaslavl in 1654. decided to annex Ukraine to Russia. Elected Cossack governance remained, headed by a hetman, who had the right to foreign policy relations with all countries, with the exception of Poland and Turkey.

Reasons for joining:

• Religious and ethnic community of the Russian and Ukrainian people.
• Their common historical past and joint struggle against external enemies.
• Maintaining independence required choosing the “lesser evil.” Joining a close culture, maintaining internal independence.
• The accession was in the interests of Russia.

War with Sweden. (1656 - 1658) - Breakthrough in foreign policy of the 17th century

Sweden took advantage of Poland's failures, wanting to strengthen its influence in the Baltic. The Swedes did not want Russia to strengthen. In 1655 they occupied Warsaw. Russia entered the war with Sweden. - Peace of Kardis, return of the occupied lands of Livonia.

Poland, having received a respite, regained its strength and continued the war with Russia. Part of the Cossack leadership took the side of Poland. 1667 - Truce of Andrusovo. The return of Smolensk, left-bank Ukraine, to Russia. Kyiv was given away for 2 years, but was never returned. 1686 — Eternal peace, a major diplomatic victory.

The Russian-Turkish War (1677 - 1681) is an eternal problem of Russian foreign policy

The reunification of Russia and Ukraine led to war with the Ottoman Empire. Russian-Ukrainian troops defended Chigirin. 1681 - Bakhchisarai truce for 20 years. The territory between the Dnieper and the Bug is neutral. Foreign policy The 17th century was not successful in relation to Turkey.

1684 - creation of the Holy League - a Coalition of Austria, Poland, Venice, which counted on the support of Russia. This prompted Poland to sign the “Eternal Peace”.

New war of 1686 Russia announced Porte. It was not possible to take control of Crimea.

The Eastern direction is the peaceful direction of foreign policy of the 17th century

During the 17th century. Russian explorers advanced from Western Siberia to the shores of the Pacific Ocean.

Krasnoyarsk fort, Bratsk fort, Yakut fort, Irkutsk winter quarters. Yasak, a fur tax, was collected from the local population.

At the same time, peasant colonization of the arable lands of Southern Siberia began. By the 17th century the population was 150 thousand.

The main strategic tasks - gaining access to the seas and reunifying Russian lands - remained unresolved and passed into the next century. Also great value in world history is the Rebellion of Stepan Razin.

For many years, Russian foreign policy in the 17th century was guided by several key goals. The first Romanovs sought to return as much of the East Slavic lands as possible, taken by Poland, and to gain access to the Baltic (which was controlled by Sweden). It was also during this period that the first wars against Turkey began. This confrontation was at an initial stage and reached its climax in the next century. Other regions where Russia sought to maintain its interests were the Caucasus and the Far East.

Troubles and war with Poland

The 17th century began tragically for Russia. The Rurik dynasty that ruled the country was ended. The brother-in-law of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich, Boris Godunov, came to power. His rights to the throne remained controversial and numerous opponents of the monarch took advantage of this. In 1604, an army under the command of the impostor False Dmitry invaded Russia from Poland. The contender for the throne found every support in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This episode began the Russian-Polish War, which ended only in 1618.

The conflict between two long-time neighbors had deep historical roots. Therefore, the entire foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century was based on confrontation with Poland. The rivalry resulted in a series of wars. The first of them, in the 17th century, turned out to be unsuccessful for Russia. Although False Dmitry was overthrown and killed, the Poles later occupied Moscow on their own and controlled the Kremlin from 1610 to 1612.

Only the people's militia, assembled by national heroes Kuzma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky, managed to expel the interventionists. Then a Zemsky Council was held, at which Mikhail Romanov was elected the legitimate king. The new dynasty stabilized the situation in the country. Nevertheless, many border lands remained in the hands of the Poles, including Smolensk. Therefore, all further Russian foreign policy in the 17th century was aimed at the return of original Russian cities.

Loss of the Baltic coast

Even Vasily Shuisky, fighting against the Poles, entered into an alliance with Sweden. In the Battle of Klushino in 1610, this coalition was defeated. Russia found itself paralyzed. The Swedes took advantage of the current situation and began to capture its cities near their border. They took control of Ivangorod, Korela, Yam, Gdov, Koporye and, finally, Novgorod.

Swedish expansion stopped under the walls of Pskov and Tikhvin. The sieges of these fortresses ended in a fiasco for the Scandinavians. Then the Russian army drove them out of their lands, although some of the fortresses remained in the hands of foreigners. The war with Sweden ended in 1617 with the signing of the Stolbovsky Peace Treaty. According to it, Russia lost access to the Baltic Sea and paid its neighbor a large indemnity of 20 thousand rubles. At the same time, the Swedes returned Novgorod. The consequence of the Stolbovo Peace was that Russian foreign policy in the 17th century acquired another important goal. Having recovered from the horrors of the Time of Troubles, the country began the struggle to return to the shores of the Baltic.

Smolensk War

During the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich (1613 - 1645) there was only one major armed conflict with another country. It turned out to be the Smolensk War (1632 - 1634) against Poland. This campaign was led by commanders Mikhail Shein, Semyon Prozorovsky and Artemy Izmailov.

Before the war, Moscow diplomats tried to win over Sweden and the Ottoman Empire to their side. The anti-Polish coalition never came together. As a result, I had to fight alone. Nevertheless, Russia's foreign policy goals in the 17th century remained the same. The key task (return of Smolensk) was not completed. The months-long siege of the city ended with the surrender of Shein. The parties ended the war with the Peace of Polyanovsky. The Polish king Vladislav IV returned Trubchevsk and Serpeisk to Russia, and also renounced his claims to the Russian throne (preserved since the Time of Troubles). For the Romanovs it was an intermediate success. Further struggle was postponed to the future.

Conflict with Persia

Mikhail Fedorovich's heir, Alexey, was more active than his father in the international arena. And although his main interests were in the west, he had to face challenges in other regions. So, in 1651, a conflict broke out with Persia.

Russian foreign policy in the 17th century, in short, began to come into contact with many states with which the Rurikovichs had not yet dealt. In the Caucasus, such a new country turned out to be Persia. The troops of her dynasty, the Safavids, attacked the lands controlled by the Russian kingdom. The main struggle was for Dagestan and the Caspian Sea. The trips ended in nothing. Alexey Mikhailovich did not want the conflict to escalate. He sent an embassy to Shah Abbas II and in 1653 the war was stopped and the status quo was restored on the border. Nevertheless, the Caspian issue persisted. Later, Peter I led the offensive here in the 18th century.

Annexation of Smolensk, Left Bank Ukraine and Kyiv

The main success of Alexei Mikhailovich in foreign policy was the next war with Poland (1654 - 1667). The first stage of the campaign resulted in the unconditional defeat of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Zaporozhye and Moscow troops entered Ukraine and thus actually reunited the lands of the Eastern Slavs.

In 1656, a temporary Truce of Vilna was concluded between the parties. It was caused by the Swedish invasion of Poland and the simultaneous outbreak of war between the Swedes and Russians. In 1660, the Poles tried to carry out a counteroffensive, but it ended in failure. The war finally ended in 1667 after the signing of the Truce of Andrusovo. According to that agreement, the Smolensk region, Kyiv and the entire Left Bank Ukraine were annexed to Moscow. Thus, Alexey Mikhailovich successfully completed the task to which Russian foreign policy was subordinated in the 17th century. The short truce could still be interrupted by war again, so the conflict required further negotiations, which ended under Princess Sophia.

Fight with Sweden

As mentioned above, having achieved success in Ukraine, Alexey Mikhailovich decided to try his luck in the Baltic. The long-gestating revenge war with Sweden began in 1656. She turned out to be two years old. The fighting spanned Livonia, Finland, Ingria and Karelia.

Russia's foreign policy of the 17th and 18th centuries, in short, aimed at access to the Western seas, since this would allow for the establishment of better ties with Europe. This is exactly what Alexey Mikhailovich wanted to achieve. In 1658, the Truce of Valiesar was concluded, according to which Russia retained part of the lands in Livonia. However, three years later, Moscow diplomats had to agree to restore the previous borders in order to avoid a war on two fronts against Sweden and Poland at the same time. This order was consolidated by the Treaty of Kardis. The Baltic ports were never obtained.

War with Turkey

At the end of the Russian-Polish confrontation, the Ottoman Empire intervened in it, which sought to conquer Right Bank Ukraine. In the spring of 1672, an army of 300,000 invaded. She defeated the Poles. Subsequently, the Turks and Crimean Tatars also fought against Russia. In particular, the Belgorod defensive line was attacked.

The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century in many ways turned out to be a logical prologue to the foreign policy of the 18th century. This pattern is especially evident in the example of the struggle for hegemony in the Black Sea. During the era of Alexei Mikhailovich and his son Fyodor, the Turks last tried to expand their possessions in Ukraine. That war ended in 1681. Türkiye and Russia drew borders along the Dnieper. The Zaporozhye Sich was also declared independent from Moscow.

Eternal peace with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

The entire domestic and foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century depended heavily on relations with Poland. Periods of war and peace influenced the economy, social situation and the mood of the population. Relations between the two powers were finally settled in 1682. That spring, the countries concluded Eternal Peace.

The articles of the agreement stipulated the division of the Hetmanate. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth abandoned the protectorate that had existed over the Zaporozhye Sich for a long time. The provisions of the Andrusovo Truce were confirmed. Kyiv was recognized as an “eternal” part of Russia - for this Moscow paid compensation in the amount of 146 thousand rubles. Subsequently, the agreement allowed the formation of an anti-Swedish coalition during the Northern War. Also thanks to the Perpetual Peace, Russia and Poland joined forces with the rest of Europe in the fight against the Ottoman Empire.

Treaty of Nerchinsk

Even during the time of Ivan the Terrible, Russia began the colonization of Siberia. Gradually, brave peasants, Cossacks, hunters and industrialists moved further and further to the east. In the 17th century they reached the Pacific Ocean. Here, the tasks of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century were to establish friendly relations with China.

For a long time the border between the two states was not marked, which led to various incidents and conflicts. To stop misunderstandings, a delegation of diplomats led by Fyodor Golovin went to the Far East. Russian and Chinese representatives met in Nerchinsk. In 1689, they signed an agreement according to which the border between the powers was established along the banks of the Argun River. Russia lost the Amur region and Albazin. The agreement turned out to be a diplomatic defeat for the government of Sofia Alekseevna.

Crimean campaigns

After reconciliation with Poland, Russian foreign policy at the end of the 17th century was directed towards the Black Sea and Turkey. For a long time, the country was haunted by the raids of the Crimean Khanate, a state that was in vassal relations with the Ottoman Empire. The campaign against a dangerous neighbor was led by Prince Vasily Golitsyn, the favorite of Princess Sofia Alekseevna.

In total, two Crimean campaigns took place (in 1687 and 1689). They weren't particularly successful. Golitsyn did not capture other people's fortresses. Nevertheless, Russia diverted significant forces of the Crimeans and Turks, which helped its European allies in the general anti-Ottoman war. Thanks to this, the Romanovs significantly increased their international prestige.

Azov campaigns

Sofya Alekseevna was deprived of power by her younger brother Peter, who grew up and did not want to share powers with the regent. The young tsar continued Golitsyn's work. His first military experience was connected precisely with the confrontation with Turkey.

In 1695 and 1696 Peter led two campaigns against Azov. On the second attempt, the Turkish fortress was captured. Nearby, the monarch ordered the founding of Taganrog. For his success near Azov, voivode Alexey Shein received the title of generalissimo. So, two directions of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century (southern and “Polish”) were marked by success. Now Peter turned his attention to the Baltic. In 1700 he started the Northern War against Sweden, which immortalized his name. But that was already the history of the 18th century.

Results

The 17th century for Russia was rich in foreign policy events (both successes and failures). The result of the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the century was the loss of many territories, including the Baltic coast and the Smolensk region. The reigning Romanov dynasty set about correcting the mistakes of its predecessors.

The peculiarities of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century turned out to be such that the greatest success awaited it in the Polish direction. Not only was Smolensk returned, but also Kyiv and Left Bank Ukraine. Thus, Moscow for the first time began to control all the key lands of the Old Russian state.

The results in two other directions were more contradictory: the Baltic and the Black Sea. In the north, an attempt at revenge with Sweden failed, and this task fell on the shoulders of Peter I, who entered the new 18th century with his country. The same situation occurred with southern seas. And if in the end XVII century Peter occupied Azov, but later he lost it, and the task of expansion in this region was completed only under Catherine II. Finally, under the first Romanovs, the colonization of Siberia continued, Far East first contacts with China were established.