Lateral part. Medially and laterally it's like. Structure of the telencephalon

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Terms used

Position relative to the center of mass and longitudinal axis of the body or body outgrowth

Abaxial(antonym: adaxial) - located further from the axis.
Adaxial(antonym: abaxial) - located closer to the axis.
Apical (antonym: basal) - located at the top.
Basal(antonym: apical) - located at the base.
Distal(antonym: proximal) - distant.
Lateral(antonym: medial) - lateral, lying further from the median plane.
Medial(antonym: lateral) - middle, located closer to the median plane.
Proximal(antonym: distal) - neighbor.

Position relative to main body parts

Aboral(antonym: adoral) - located on the pole of the body opposite the mouth.
Adoral(oral) (antonym: aboral) - located near the mouth.
Ventral(antonym: dorsal) - abdominal (anterior).
Dorsal(antonym: ventral) - dorsal (back).
Caudal(antonym: cranial) - caudal, located closer to the tail or to the rear end of the body.
Cranial(antonym: caudal) - cephalic, located closer to the head or to the anterior end of the body.
Rostral- nasal, literally - located closer to the beak. Located closer to the head or to the anterior end of the body.

Basic planes and sections

Sagittal- an incision running in the plane of bilateral symmetry of the body.
Parasagittal- an incision running parallel to the plane of bilateral symmetry of the body.
Frontal- an incision running along the anterior-posterior axis of the body perpendicular to the sagittal.
Axial- incision running in the transverse plane of the body

Methods of drug administration

orally- through the mouth;
intradermally, intradermally(eng. intracutaneous or intradermal);
subcutaneously(eng. subcutaneous);
intramuscularly(eng. intramuscular);
intravenously(eng. intravenous);
intra-arterial
intraosseous
rectally- through the anus;
sublingually- under the tongue;
buccal- between upper lip and gums;
vaginally- through the vagina.

Directions

Animals usually have a head at one end of their body and a tail at the opposite end. The head end in anatomy is called cranial, cranialis(cranium - skull), and the caudal one is called caudal, caudalis(cauda - tail). On the head itself, they are guided by the animal’s nose, and the direction towards its tip is called rostral, rostralis(rostrum - beak, nose).

The surface or side of an animal's body that points upward, against gravity, is called dorsal, dorsalis(dorsum - back), and the opposite side of the body, which is closest to the ground when the animal is in a natural position, that is, walking, flying or swimming - ventral, ventralis(venter - belly). For example, the dorsal fin of a dolphin is located dorsally, and the cow's udder is ventral side.

Right, dexter, And left, sinister, the sides are indicated as they would appear from the point of view of the animal being studied. Term homolateral, less often ipsilateral indicates location on the same side, and contralateral- located on the opposite side. Bilaterally- means location on both sides.

Application in human anatomy

All descriptions in human anatomy are based on the assumption that the body is in an anatomical stance position, that is, the person stands upright, arms down, palms facing forward.

The areas located closer to the head are called top; further - lower. Upper, superior, corresponds to the concept cranial, and the lower one, inferior, - concept caudal. Front, anterior, And rear, posterior, correspond to the concepts ventral And dorsal(however, in the case of four-legged animals capable of standing upright, the terms front And rear are incorrect, the concepts should be used ventral And dorsal).

Central- located in the center of the body or anatomical region;
peripheral- external, distant from the center.

When describing the position of organs located at different depths, the following terms are used: deep, profundus, And surface, superficialis.

Concepts outer, externus, And interior, internus, are used to describe the position of structures in relation to various body cavities.

The term visceral, visceralis(viscerus - inside) indicate belonging and close proximity to any organ. A parietal, parietalis(paries - wall), - means related to any wall. For example, visceral the pleura covers the lungs, while parietal pleura covers inner surface chest wall.

Limbs

Surface upper limb relative to the palm is denoted by the term palmaris - palmar, and lower limb relative to the sole - plantaris - plantar.

Anterograde movement along the natural flow of fluids and intestinal contents is called, while movement against the natural flow is called retrograde. Thus, the movement of food from the mouth to the stomach anterograde, and with vomiting - retrograde.

Mnemonic rules

To remember the direction of movement of the hand during supination and pronation, an analogy with the phrase is usually used “I’m bringing soup, I spilled the soup.”.

The student is asked to stretch his hand forward with the palm up (forward with the limb hanging) and imagine that he is holding a plate of soup on his hand - "I'm bringing soup"- supination. Then he turns his hand palm down (backwards with a free-hanging limb) - "soup spilled"- pronation.

Terms used

Position relative to the center of mass and the longitudinal axis of the body or body outgrowth

Abaxial(antonym: adaxial) - located further from the axis.
Adaxial(antonym: abaxial) - located closer to the axis.
Apical(antonym: basal) - located at the top.
Basal(antonym: apical) - located at the base.
Distal(antonym: proximal) - distant.
Lateral(antonym: medial) - lateral.
Medial(antonym: lateral) - middle.
Proximal(antonym: distal) - neighbor.

Position relative to main body parts

Aboral(antonym: adoral) - located on the pole of the body opposite the mouth.
Adoral(oral) (antonym: aboral) - located near the mouth.
Ventral(antonym: dorsal) - abdominal.
Dorsal(antonym: ventral) - dorsal.
Caudal(antonym: cranial) - caudal, located closer to the tail or to the rear end of the body.
Cranial(antonym: caudal) - cephalic, located closer to the head or to the anterior end of the body.
Rostral- nasal, literally - located closer to the beak. Located closer to the head or to the anterior end of the body.

Basic planes and sections

Sagittal- an incision running in the plane of bilateral symmetry of the body.
Parasagittal- an incision running parallel to the plane of bilateral symmetry of the body.
Frontal- an incision running along the anterior-posterior axis of the body perpendicular to the sagittal.
Axial- incision running in the transverse plane of the body

Methods of drug administration

orally- through the mouth;
intradermally, intradermally(lat. intracutaneous or intradermal);
subcutaneously(lat. subcutaneous);
intramuscularly(lat. intramuscular);
intravenously(lat. intravenous);
rectally- through the anus;
sublingually- under the tongue.

Directions

All descriptions in human anatomy are based on the assumption that the body is in an anatomical stance position, that is, the person stands upright, arms down, palms facing forward.

The areas located closer to the head are called top; further - lower. Upper, superior, corresponds to the concept cranial, and the lower one, inferior, - concept caudal. Front, anterior, And rear, posterior, correspond to the concepts ventral And dorsal. Moreover, the terms front And rear in relation to four-legged animals are incorrect, the concepts should be used ventral And dorsal.

Central- located in the center of the body or anatomical region;
peripheral- external, distant from the center.

When describing the position of organs located at different depths, the following terms are used: deep, profundus, And surface, superficialis.

Concepts outer, externus, And interior, internus, are used to describe the position of structures in relation to various body cavities.

Limbs

The surface of the upper limb relative to the palm is designated by the term palmaris - palmar, and the lower limb relative to the sole - plantaris - plantar.

The edge of the forearm on the side of the radius is called radial, radialis, and from the side of the ulna - elbow, ulnaris. On the lower leg, the edge where the tibia is located is called tibial, tibialis, and the opposite edge, where the fibula lies - fibular, fibularis.

Proximal and distal

Proximal(from lat. proximus- closest) term indicating the location of an organ or part of it closer to the center of the body or to its median (median) plane; opposite of the term distal, for example, in a person’s hand, the shoulder - proximal part, and the hand is distal.

Planes

In the anatomy of animals and humans, the concept of the main projection planes is accepted.

The vertical plane divides the body into left and right parts;
the frontal plane divides the body into dorsal and ventral parts;
the horizontal plane divides the body into cranial and caudal parts.

Application in human anatomy

The relationship of the body to the main planes of projection is important in medical imaging systems such as computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and positron emission tomography. In such cases, the body of a person in anatomical stand, is conventionally placed in a three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system. In this case, the plane YX turns out to be located horizontally, the axis X located in the anteroposterior direction, the axis Y goes from left to right or from right to left, and the axis Z is directed up and down, that is, along the human body.

Sagittal plane, XZ, separates the right and left halves of the body. A special case of the sagittal plane is median plane, it runs exactly in the middle of the body, dividing it into two symmetrical halves.
Frontal plane, or coronal, YZ, also located vertically, perpendicular to the sagittal, it separates the anterior (ventral) part of the body from the posterior (dorsal) part.
Horizontal, axial, or transverse plane, XY, perpendicular to the first two and parallel to the surface of the earth, it separates the overlying parts of the body from the underlying ones.

These three planes can be drawn through any point of the human body; the number of planes can be arbitrary. In addition, in systematic anatomy to determine topography internal organs use a number of other planes: horizontal transpyloric, planum transpyloricum, which passes through the middle of the line connecting the sternal notch with the pubic symphysis; horizontal: subcostal, planum subcostale, passing through the lowest points of the costal arch; supracrestal, planum supracristale, connecting the highest points of the iliac crests; intertubercular plane, planum intertuberculare, passing through the superior anterior iliac spines of the iliac bones, etc.

Movements

The term bending, flexio, indicate the movement of one of the bony levers around frontal axis, at which the angle between the articulating bones decreases. For example, when a person sits down, when bending in knee joint the angle between the thigh and shin decreases. Movement in the opposite direction, that is, when the limb or torso is straightened and the angle between the bony levers increases, is called extension, extensio.

An exception is the ankle (supratalar) joint, in which extension is accompanied by upward movement of the fingers, and when bending, for example, when a person stands on tiptoes, the fingers move downward. Therefore, foot flexion is also called plantar flexion, and extension of the foot is designated by the term dorsiflexion.

With movements around sagittal axis are casting, adductio, And lead, abductio. Adduction is the movement of the bone towards the midplane of the body or (for fingers) to the axis of the limb; abduction characterizes movement in the opposite direction. For example, when the shoulder is abducted, the arm rises to the side, and the fingers are brought together to close them.

Under rotation, rotation, understand the movement of a body part or bone around its longitudinal axis. For example, head rotation occurs due to rotation cervical spine spine Rotation of the limbs is also referred to as pronation, pronatio, or inward rotation, And supination, supinatio, or outward rotation. With pronation, the palm of the freely hanging upper limb turns backward, and with supination, it turns forward. Pronation and supination of the hand are carried out thanks to the proximal and distal radioulnar joints. The lower limb rotates around its axis mainly due to hip joint; pronation orients the toe of the foot inward, and supination orients it outward. If, when moving around all three axes, the end of a limb describes a circle, such movement is called circular, circumductio.

Questions and answers for the discipline exam

Human Anatomy and Physiology

Speciality:

Nursing 060501 (evening department)

Ticket number 1.

1. Tissues, organs, organ systems, the body as a whole.

2. Telencephalon: structure. Hemispheres big brain. Surfaces, lobes. Furrows, convolutions. Limbic system.

"Fundamentals of histology - tissues."

Tissues are a group of cells and intercellular substance that have the same structure and perform the same function.

Kinds:

1. epithelial

2. blood and lymph

3. connecting

4. muscular

5. nervous

Organ(ancient Greek ὄργανον - “tool”) - a separate set various types cells and tissues that perform a specific function in a living organism.

An organ is a functional unit within an organism, separate from other functional units of a given organism. The organs of one organism are connected in their functions to each other in such a way that the organism is a collection of organs, which are often combined into various organ systems.

An organ is only a collection of tissues and cells that has a stable position within the body and whose development can be traced within ontogenesis (organogenesis).

Organ system– a group of organs similar in origin, structure and functions. Organs are located in cavities filled with fluid. They communicate with external environment. A set of anatomical terms that define the position of organs in the body and their direction - anatomical nomenclature.

Human- biosocial being. Organism- a biological system endowed with intelligence. Man has inherent laws of life (self-renewal, self-reproduction, self-regulation). These patterns are realized through the processes of metabolism and energy, irritability, heredity and homeostasis - relatively dynamic constancy internal environment body. The human body is multi-level:

molecular

· cellular

· fabric

· organ

· systemic

Interconnection in the body is achieved through nervous and humoral regulation. A person constantly has new needs. Ways to satisfy them: self-satisfaction or with outside help.

Mechanisms of self-satisfaction:

Congenital (changes in metabolism, functioning of internal organs)

acquired (conscious behavior, mental reactions)

Need satisfaction structures:

1. executive (respiratory, digestive, excretory)

2. regulatory (nervous and endocrine)

Answer 2

The cerebrum or telencephalon develops from the forebrain. It develops later than other departments, but in humans it reaches its highest development. It surpasses other sections in mass and size. The brain consists of 2 hemispheres (left and right), separated by a longitudinal fissure and connected at the depth of this fissure by means of corpus callosum, anterior and posterior commissures and fornix commissures. Between the hemisphere and the cerebellum there is a transverse fissure at the back. Inside the cerebral hemispheres there are cavities filled with cerebrospinal fluid - 1 and 2 lateral ventricles. The left ventricle is considered the first, the right ventricle 2. Each ventricle has: central part and 3 horns (anterior - frontal, posterior - occipital, inferior - temporal). In the central part and temporal horn there are choroid plexuses that secrete cerebrospinal fluid. The interventricular foramina communicate the 3rd ventricle with the two lateral ones; the foramen of Monroe communicates the lateral ventricles with 3; two lateral apertures (foramina of Luschka) communicate the 4th ventricle with the subarachnoid space; the medial aperture (foramen of Magendie) communicates the 4th ventricle with the cerebellar-cerebral cistern - an expansion of the subarachnoid space.

Each hemisphere is covered on the outside with a cortex (cloak) - gray matter consisting of neurons; inside there is white matter - processes of neurons. Inside white matter there are accumulations of gray - the basal ganglia. The thalamus and cerebral peduncles communicate with the hemispheres. The border between big and diencephalon lies where the internal capsule is adjacent to the lateral walls of the thalami. Each hemisphere has 3 surfaces:

superolateral (convex)

medial – flat

· lower – uneven

The most protruding areas of the hemispheres forward and backward are the poles:

occipital

· temporal

The surface of the hemispheres is dotted with convolutions and grooves. The gyrus is a ridge of brain matter that rises above the surface of the hemisphere. A sulcus is a depression between the gyri. The presence of grooves and convolutions increases the surface of the CBM without increasing its volume. There are primary convolutions (the same for everyone) and secondary convolutions (individual, depending on the level of intelligence).

Each hemisphere has 5 lobes:

parietal

· temporal

· occipital

· insular

Frontal lobe occupies the anterior part of the cranial cavity and is located in the anterior cranial fossa. This lobe is delimited from the parietal central (Rolandic) sulcus. The parietal lobe is located behind the central sulcus. The temporal lobe is located in the middle cranial fossa and is separated from the frontal and parietal lobes by the lateral (Sylvian) fissure. The occipital lobe is located in the posterior part of the skull above the cerebellum and is separated from the parietal lobe by the parieto-occipital sulcus, located on the medial surface of the hemisphere. The islet is located deep in the lateral sulcus. It can be seen if parts of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes are moved apart or removed. Medial surface hemisphere has 2 convolutions - the cingulate (above the corpus callosum). From the back downwards it narrows, forming the isthmus of the cingulate gyrus. It passes into the second, wider gyrus of the hippocampus (parahippocampal) - the seahorse gyrus (curved in the shape of a comma).

From above it is limited by the hippocampal sulcus. The cingulate, isthmus and parahippocampal gyri form the vaulted gyrus, which belongs to the limbic system. The anterior curved end of the hippocampal gyrus is the hook. The posterior end of the gyrus has a thickening - the amygdala. This gyrus separates temporal lobe from the brain stem.

The CBM is the highest department of the central nervous system, shaping the activity of the body as a whole in its interaction with environment. This is the youngest formation of the brain. With its appearance, corticolization of functions occurs - the regulation of body functions moves from the underlying sections to the cortex. It begins to regulate and control all processes and activities in general. The cortex is the manager of all functions of the body, it is the seat of the intellect, the workshop of our desires, thoughts, will and feelings (I.P. Pavlov). the work of the CBM together with the basal ganglia forms the VNI.

The GBM is a layer of gray matter 5 mm thick. Due to the folds, its area is 0.25 m2. it contains up to 17 billion neurons, which are grouped into layers and forms the neocortex - the new cortex - the highest integration department of the somatic nervous system. In humans, the neocortex occupies 95.6% of the total surface of the cortex. The six-layer type of bark varies in different areas. The fifth layer of the neocortex is formed by the pyramidal cells of Betz, from which the pyramid system. The rest is occupied by the paleocortex - the old cortex. This structure is 3-layer. The processes occurring in the paleocortex are not always reflected in consciousness. It includes the most ancient parts of the cortex, which are part of the limbic system (olfactory brain).

KBM layers:

1. outer molecular layer – small nerve cells

2. outer granular layer – granular neurons – round in shape, multipolar

3. pyramidal layer – pyramid-shaped neurons

4. internal granular layer - small neurons of round or stellate shape - afferent

5. inner pyramidal layer – large pyramidal neurons – Betz cells – efferent neurons

6. 7. multimorphic layers - fusiform neurons - intercalary

The space between the cortex and basal ganglia is occupied by white matter - these are the processes of neurons that form nerve fibers and pathways of the cerebrum:

· associative (short and long) – connection between areas of one hemisphere

· commissural (connection of identical symmetrical areas of different hemispheres) – the corpus callosum is the largest commissure of the brain.

Projection (conducting) – communication with other parts of the brain to spinal cord. They are long, conduct excitation centripetally (towards the cortex) and centrifugally (from the cortex).

Lateral surface of the hemisphere:

1. precentral sulcus

2. precentral gyrus

3. Rolandic fissure

4. postcentral sulcus

5. postcentral gyrus

6. superior parietal lobule

7. inferior parietal lobule

8. angular gyrus

9. superior, middle and inferior temporal gyri

10. middle and inferior temporal sulcus

11. Sylvian fissure

12. bottom frontal sulcus

13. inferior frontal gyrus

14. middle frontal gyrus

15. superior frontal sulcus

16. superior frontal gyrus

Medial surface of the hemisphere.

1. corpus callosum: trunk, knee, beak

2. anterior commissure of the brain

3. posterior commissure of the brain

4. vault of the brain

5. sulcus of the corpus callosum

6. cingulate gyrus

7. cingulate groove

8. superior frontal gyrus

9. paracentral lobule

10. precuneus

11. parieto-occipital sulcus

13. calcarine groove

14. lingual gyrus

15. hippocampal sulcus

16. parahippocampal gyrus

These furrows and convolutions are primary, secondary and tertiary for each person individually.

Anatomical terminology serves to accurately describe the location of body parts, organs and other anatomical formations in space and in relation to each other in the anatomy of humans and other animals with a bilateral type of body symmetry, a number of terms are used. Moreover, human anatomy has a number of terminological features that are described here and in a separate article.

Terms used

Terms describing position relative to the center of mass and longitudinal axis of the body or body outgrowth:

Abaxial(antonym: adaxial) - located further from the axis.
Adaxial(antonym: abaxial) - located closer to the axis.
Apical(antonym: basal) - located at the top.
Basal(antonym: apical) - located at the base.
Distal(antonym: proximal) - distant.
Lateral(antonym: medial) - lateral, lying further from the median plane.
Medial(antonym: lateral) - middle, located closer to the median plane.
Proximal(antonym: distal) - neighbor.

Terms describing position relative to major body parts:

Aboral(antonym: adoral) - located on the pole of the body opposite the mouth.
Adoral(antonym: aboral) - located near the mouth.
Abdominal- abdominal, pertaining to the abdominal region.
Ventral(antonym: dorsal) - abdominal (anterior).
Dorsal(antonym: ventral) - dorsal (back).
Caudal(antonym: cranial) - caudal, located closer to the tail or to the rear end of the body.
Cranial(antonym: caudal) - cephalic, located closer to the head or to the anterior end of the body.
Rostral- nasal, literally - located closer to the beak. Located closer to the head or to the anterior end of the body.

Main planes and sections:

Sagittal- an incision running in the plane of bilateral symmetry of the body.
Parasagittal- an incision running parallel to the plane of bilateral symmetry of the body.
Frontal- an incision running along the anterior-posterior axis of the body perpendicular to the sagittal.
Axial- incision running in the transverse plane of the body

Directions

The surface or side of an animal's body that points upward, against gravity, is called dorsal, dorsalis(dordum - back), and the opposite side of the body, which is closest to the ground when the animal is in a natural position, that is, walking, flying or swimming - ventral, ventralis(venter - belly). For example, the dorsal fin of a dolphin is located dorsally, and the cow's udder is ventral side.

For the limbs the following concepts are valid: proximal, proximalis, - for a point less distant from the body, and distal, distalis, - for a remote point. The same terms for internal organs mean distance from the place of origin of this body(for example: “distal segment of the jejunum”).

Application in human anatomy

All descriptions in human anatomy are based on the belief that the body is in an anatomical stance position, that is, the person stands upright, arms down, palms facing forward.

The areas located closer to the head are called top; further - lower. Upper, superior, corresponds to the concept cranial, and the lower one, inferior, - concept caudal. Front, anterior, And rear, posterior, correspond to the concepts ventral And dorsal. Moreover, the terms front And rear in relation to four-legged animals are incorrect, the concepts should be used ventral And dorsal.

Designation of directions

Formations lying closer to the median plane - medial, medialis, and those located further - lateral, lateralis. Formations located on the median plane are called median, medianus. For example, the cheek is located more laterally wing of the nose, and the tip of the nose - median structure. If an organ lies between two adjacent formations, it is called intermediate, intermedius.

Formations located closer to the body will be proximal in relation to more distant ones, distal. These concepts are also valid when describing organs. For example, distal the end of the ureter enters the bladder.

Central- located in the center of the body or anatomical region;
peripheral- external, distant from the center.

When describing the position of organs located at different depths, the following terms are used: deep, profundus, And surface, superficialis.

Concepts outer, externus, And interior, internus, are used to describe the position of structures in relation to various body cavities.

The term visceral, visceralis(viscerus - inside) indicate belonging and close proximity to any organ. A parietal, parietalis(paries - wall), - means related to any wall. For example, visceral the pleura covers the lungs, while parietal the pleura covers the inner surface of the chest wall.

Designation of directions on the limbs

The surface of the upper limb relative to the palm is designated by the term palmaris - palmar, and the lower limb relative to the sole - plantaris - plantar.

The sternum is unpaired, an elongated bone, resembles a dagger in shape, consists of 3 parts: the upper one is the handle, the middle one is the body and the lower one is the xiphoid process (Fig. 8). All three parts are connected by a cartilaginous layer, which ossifies with age.

Manubrium of the sternum - the widest part, thick at the top, thinner and narrower at the bottom, has a jugular notch on the upper edge, which can be easily palpated; on the sides of it there are clavicular notches, in which articulation occurs with the sternal end of the clavicle.

Body of the sternum - almost 3 times longer than the handle, but narrower. On the lateral edge of the body of the sternum there are costal notches in which articulation occurs with the cartilages of the ribs, starting from II. Inferiorly, the body of the sternum expands somewhat and on its anterior surface three transverse lines are visible, traces of the fusion of the four primary segments of the sternum. The lower edge of the manubrium and the upper edge of the body form a prominent anterior angle of the sternum, which is easily palpable through the skin.

xiphoid process - the shortest part of the sternum, may vary in size and shape. It has a forked top or a hole in it. In the superolateral part of the xiphoid process there is an incomplete notch for articulation with the cartilage of the UP rib. With old age, the xiphoid process ossifies and fuses with the body of the sternum.

The structure of the sternum is characterized by an abundance of delicate spongy substance with a very rich vascular network, which makes intrathoracic blood transfusion possible. Rich development in the sternum bone marrow allows you to take it from here for transplants in the treatment of a number of diseases.

Rice. 8 Sternum.

1 – manubrium of the sternum;

2 - body of the sternum;

3 - rib notch;

4 – xiphoid process.

RIBS

There are 12 ribs on each side. They are narrow, curved bone plates of varying lengths, turning into cartilaginous plates in the anterior section. All of them are connected by their posterior ends to the bodies of the thoracic vertebrae, and to the sternum by their anterior ends. The bony part of the rib has a head, neck and body. The rib head is located at its vertebral end. It has an articular surface of the rib head divided by a horizontally running ridge of the rib head. In the I, XI, XII ribs the articular surface of the head is not divided. The head is followed by a narrowed part - rib neck. At the junction of the neck with the body of the rib there is a costal tubercle with an articular surface for articulation with the articular surface of the transverse process of the corresponding vertebra. The last two pairs of ribs do not have these tubercles, because they do not connect with the transverse processes of the last thoracic vertebrae. Rib body - is the longest section of the bony part of the rib. Lateral from the tubercle, the bend of the rib changes sharply, forming the angle of the rib. The body of the rib is flattened throughout. This allows us to distinguish two surfaces in it: internal, concave and external, convex, as well as two edges: upper, rounded and lower, sharp. On the inner surface along the lower edge there is a rib groove where the intercostal vessels pass. The ribs are twisted around their long axis. At the anterior sternal end of the rib there is a fossa to which the costal cartilage is attached. The costal cartilages are a continuation of the bony parts of the ribs. The top 7 pairs of edges are called true, because with their cartilages they attach directly to the sternum; The next 3 pairs of edges are called false, because they are attached to the cartilage of the overlying rib. The oscillating ribs XI and XII do not reach the sternum with their cartilaginous ends and lie freely in the muscles of the abdominal wall.

Some features have two first and two last pairs of edges.

First rib - shorter, but wider than the others. On the upper surface of the rib in the anterior section there is a tubercle of the anterior scalene muscle (the place of its attachment). Outside and posterior to the tubercle lies the groove of the subclavian artery, posterior to it is the roughness - the place of attachment of the middle scalene muscle. Anterior and medially from the tubercle there is a faint groove of the subclavian vein. The articular surface of the head of the first rib is not divided by a ridge; the neck is long and thin; The costal angle coincides with the tubercle of the rib. Second rib - has on outer surface Roughness is the attachment site of the serratus anterior muscle. Eleventh and twelfth ribs - have articular surfaces of the head not separated by a ridge. On the XI rib, the angle, neck, tubercle and costal groove are weakly expressed, and on the XII they are absent.

The shape and size of the chest are subject to significant individual variations, due to the degree of development of muscles and lungs, which in turn is associated with the lifestyle and profession of a given person.

Usually there are three shapes of the chest: flat, cylindrical and conical. In people with well-developed muscles and lungs, the cell becomes wide, but short and takes on a conical shape, i.e. its lower part is wider than the upper, the ribs are slightly inclined, the substernal angle is large. Such a chest is in a state of inhalation, which is why it is also called inspiratory.

In people with poorly defined muscles and lungs, the chest becomes narrow and long, acquiring a flat shape, in which the chest is strongly flattened in the anteroposterior diameter, so that its anterior wall is almost vertical, the ribs are strongly inclined, and the substernal angle is acute. Rib cage is, as it were, in a state of exhalation, which is why it is called expiratory. The cylindrical shape occupies an intermediate position between the two described. In women, the chest is shorter and narrower lower section than in men, and more rounded.