New Russian phraseology. The concept of phraseology and phraseological turns

1. Phraseology.

1.1. What are phraseological units. Their main features

1.2. The main directions in the development of vocabulary and phraseology today.

2. New Russian phraseology

3. Conclusions.

4. List of used literature.

1. Phraseology

1. 1. What are phraseological units. Their main features

In Russian, words, when combined with each other, form phrases. Some of them are free combinations, and some are not free. The meaning of the latter remains unchanged in different contexts, as well as their form (relatively unchanged). Moreover, their meaning is non-literal and often metaphorical. Moreover, general meaning a phraseological unit is not simply the sum of the meanings of its parts. For example: . This phraseological unit has 2 options for use - clean or fresh water. But in general its form remains virtually unchanged in different contexts, as does its meaning. Phraseologism bring someone to clean/fresh water according to the “Training Phrase Dictionary” it has the following meaning: “to expose, to incriminate someone (to reveal matters, usually dark, unseemly).” The literal meaning of this phraseological unit could be presented in the form of a picture where one person leads (leads) another person to clean water (perhaps some clean source).

In different languages, the units that make up certain phraseological combinations of words are different, although the general meaning of many combinations is approximately the same. Therefore, we can find correspondences between phraseological units from different languages. For example, English to kill two birds with one stone(lit.: “to kill two birds with one blow”) corresponds to Russian kill two birds with one stone. Or English to be busy as a be(lit.: “Be busy like a bee”) has the Russian equivalent - spin like a squirrel in a wheel.

So, “phraseological units (or phraseological units) are semantically indivisible phrases that are characterized by the constancy of their integral meaning, component composition, grammatical categories and a certain evaluation.” You can also add to this definition: phrases that exist in a particular language and whose overall meaning is not a simple sum of their parts. “They are the object of study of a special branch of linguistics - phraseology (gr. Phraseos - expression + logos - teaching). Often phraseology refers to the entire phraseological composition of a language, that is, the totality of all lexically indivisible phrases."

What phraseological units can be called new? New, in my opinion, are those phraseological units that either arose recently (often in connection with some phenomena or events), or they are “old” phraseological units that received a new life, that is, they were somehow changed or reinterpreted.

1.2. The main directions in the development of vocabulary and phraseology today

“In the development of Russian vocabulary and phraseology, the following main directions can be distinguished: 1) the emergence of new words and phrases; 2) changing the meanings of already existing lexical and phraseological units; 3) loss of active use of words and phrases; 4) bringing old words back to life."

2. New Russian phraseology

2.1. Reasons for the formation of new vocabulary and phraseological units

The lexical and phraseological system of a language is closely related to a person’s life in society and the development of the latter. Of all levels of language, vocabulary and phraseology are especially susceptible to change. And these changes directly reflect the state of a person, society, and state. Therefore, for each era it is possible to identify its own unique lexical and phraseological composition. In addition, from this composition one can learn a lot about a person and society of a certain period.

It is especially clear to trace changes in the lexical and phraseological system if some serious changes have occurred in the country or in the world. Such events include world wars, revolutions, crises, etc. All this will be reflected in the language and will be interpreted in a certain way in it.

Thus, it can be said that main reason changes in language, and specifically the formation of new phraseological units (and words in general) are mostly extralinguistic factors. That is, the language reflects all the changes that occur in the social, political, economic, scientific, industrial, technical, cultural and everyday life of the country. In accordance with this, in my opinion, we can identify our own special phraseology for each area of life (although there is, of course, neutral or inter-style phraseology). In this work I would like to dwell on the consideration of two spheres: socio-political (based on the blog of D. A. Medvedev) and social and everyday (based on the material of the social network “Vkontakte”). These two areas are completely different, and each of them characterizes the state of modern society in its own way.

2.2. New phraseology in the socio-political sphere (based on the blog of D. A. Medvedev)

Reviewing D. A. Medvedev’s blog posts for about the last month (the texts of his various interviews and speeches) made it possible to identify the following phraseological combinations.

Demographic scissors

Make decisions/moment of decision/decisions made

Support the initiative

Shoot a cigarette

Neither mind nor heart

Social programs

Civil society

Take it to your chest

Felony offense

Pass the bill

Leverage of influence

Government structures

Personnel potential

Public opinion

Investment climate

Puff up with happiness

Middle class

Social stability

Economic growth

World market

New technologies

Agenda

Get (one's) life/something got life

Road traffic accident

Quality of life/standard of living

Innovative development

To turn / not to turn from the path

Power structures

Artificial intelligence

The above phraseological units can be divided into several groups according to the general meaning that they express.

The first group includes all phraseological units denoting actions (especially actions of authorities). The second group includes modern realities of socio-political life. The third group includes phraseological units that denote a state (they will sometimes overlap with phraseological units from other groups). The fourth group includes the remaining phraseological units.

Actions	Realities	State	Rest
Make decisions / the moment of decision making / decisions made Support the initiative Shoot a cigarette Take it on your chest Pass the bill Puff up with happiness Get (your) life / something got life Turn off / don’t turn off the path	Demographic scissors Social programs Civil society Serious offense Government structures Personnel potential Public opinion Investment climate Middle class Social stability Economic growth World market New technologies Road traffic accident Innovative development Power structures Artificial intelligence	Neither mind nor heart Puff up with happiness Social stability	Leverage of influence Agenda Quality/level of life

Thus, it can be noted that most phraseological units denote currently relevant modern realities or problems. Most of the listed phraseological units are not particularly emotional, imagery or evaluative, but rather resemble certain cliches that we often hear in the media. Therefore, phraseological units of the socio-political sphere are not very easy to identify.

It is interesting to note that such a phraseological combination as “make decisions” (as an option “moment of decision making” or “decisions made”) turned out to be very common in the speech of D. A. Medvedev. For example: “It seems to me that this talk about contradictions is, of course, largely far-fetched. Indeed, members of the Government may have different approaches to moment of decision. Now decisions have been made, and all members of the Government must participate in their implementation. I have repeatedly said that if anyone has doubts about the justice decisions taken , then you can make a choice - you can criticize this or that system, but already being outside the Government. But there are no such people in the Government now.”

It is interesting that the lexeme “accept” itself is actively found in other combinations, for example: take to the chest, pass a bill.

To summarize, we can say that the considered phraseological units rather reflect modern socio-political reality, “name” problems, tasks and realities, and also indicate their interpretation by people.

Viewing the material of the social network “Vkontakte”, as well as personal communication experience, allowed me to identify the following phraseological units, the meanings of which I tried to formulate, or for this I used a site such as http://lurkmore.to/ (“Lurkomorye - encyclopedia of modern culture, folklore and subcultures, as well as everything else").

Delivers anything(usually used with the word “in general”) – brings joy, pleasure, like. Example: finally it delivers directly)

Face palm / hand(face - hand, palm - palm) - a phraseological unit expressing the emotion of disappointment or shame. Example: No, I’m just driving and doing a face palm every minute.

Poker face – phraseological unit expressing the absence of emotions on the face.

On/off topic. Theme is an expression of a positive attitude towards something. Off topic - about something inappropriate, the same as the expression “out of line.” Example: Satan ending theme =) Example: The site says that the voting was supposed to close on the 22nd, but it was extended out of topic.

epic fail(epic - epic, fail - failure failure) literally “epic / epic failure”, i.e. a big failure. Example: this is an epic fail!

Epic wines (epic - “epic, epic”, win - “victory”) - about something very good that happened to a person, about great luck, luck.

Enough tolerating this- phraseological unit, the authorship of which belongs to V.V. Zhirinovsky. Example: Vyacheslav, stop putting up with this, hurry up

Something burns/anneals – a phraseological unit expressing an assessment, i.e. about something very funny, amusing. Example: Comments are burning)

Test(used, as a rule, with the word “in general”) - about something funny, good, or liked. Example: overall pass)) I liked everything, even the fat guy at the 8th second)))

removes/decides something- about something good, something you liked. Example: The final video delivered... and the last chapter delivers.

Clear karma. Example: Reposting this message adds two years of life, clears karma and gives a 50 ruble discount on the entrance ticket.

Happy end– (happy – happy, end – end) – a good, happy and kind ending to something. Example: Action, blood, violence, police, triumph of justice and a happy ending (in some sense of the word) are guaranteed.

We don’t live in a fairy tale / you don’t live in a fairy tale / but you thought you were in a fairy tale?– About a not very good or bad life, about something that does not meet expectations. Example: what can we do... we don’t live in a fairy tale)

+1 – expressing agreement with someone’s ideas, opinions, or instead of reading a message (so as not to write again).

Chocolate medal- something pleasant, a reward for some action. Example: People, let's vote more actively! Let's help Tykar win a chocolate medal :)

Office plankton/ office trash/ office rat –“knowledge workers with a reduced creative component, who spend their lives in offices and other departments, but are not classified as engineers: lower managers, accountants, secretaries, etc. They are transmission mechanisms, cogs and lubricant in the mechanisms of management, accounting, planning, finance. The fast-growing proletariat of the post-industrial world".

To catch fire with something - to want to do something, to bring something to life. Example: I once read an article in MH about going to sea on a small sailing ship. A kind of men's holiday-test in the "Test Yourself" style. It's been on fire ever since.

When I become big and important / become big and important - become an adult, grow up and achieve success in self-realization. Example: I would really like to spend a few days at sea, among the waves and seagulls, constantly adjusting the sails and cables..ehh.. as they say, “when I become big and important..”))

Without a market - a phraseological unit that expresses the meaning of “doing something easily, without unnecessary questions or conversations.”

Chocavo- a phraseological unit meaning “how are you?”/ “how are you?”.

True story- about something that has already happened to you, or usually happens in general.

No longer a cake– a phraseological unit based on a play on the words “that” and “cake”, meaning “not as good as before.” Example: afthora is no longer a cake.

ROFL / I'm under the table / Lol / Lol / LOL- (laughing out loud - laughing out loud, rolling on the floor laughing - rolling on the floor laughing) - about something very funny. Example: lol

Default City- Moscow. Example: What city, default city?

Butthurt(butthurt – lit. “butt pain” or “pop pain”) is a special psycho-emotional state widely represented on the Internet, as well as the person in it. The closest scientific (psychological) term for Butthurt is frustration or unfinished (unfinished) gestalt.” Example: I demand butt-fucking dvachers shouting “cancer!” to this thread.

Shkolota detected / shkololo / shkolota- a phraseological unit meaning that someone who left a stupid message is a schoolchild. This phraseological unit has a sharply negative connotation.

Orthodoxy of the brain(pgm) - about a fanatically religious person.

Captain obvious / cap / k.o.- about someone who said an obvious, well-known and understandable thing.

80 level / 80 lvl- a designation of achieving the highest degree of something (a phraseological unit came from the game “World of Warcraft”) Example: Vyacheslav, troll lvl 80).

Grammar nazi/ Grammatik-Nazi/ grammar-nazi/ grammatical Nazi/ national-linguist/ linguistic-fascist/ literate guardsman– “an aggressive literate person with innate literacy and a heightened sense of beauty. Gets annoyed when someone makes a grammatical or spelling mistake, and instantly rushes to the attack, waving dictionaries and links to Gramota.ru.”

Bayan/boyan/bayan– “designation of a re-published joke or information. In this case, in the classical sense, the information should be re-published in the same source (for example, in the same forum, or even in the same forum section). In other words, reposting (copying information from one source to another) is not a crime in the classical sense.”

Let us divide the above phraseological combinations into groups. The first group includes phraseological units that express an assessment of a phenomenon or attitude towards it (both positive and negative). The second group includes phraseological units-emotions (in faces) or the absence thereof. The third group includes phraseological units that denote any modern realities (they may overlap with phraseological units from other groups). The fourth group includes phraseological units that express any actions. The fifth group includes phraseological units that express agreement with someone’s opinion. To the sixth group - everyone else.

Evaluation, attitude	Direct emotions or lack thereof	Modern realities	Actions	Agreeing with someone's opinion	Rest
Something delivers Theme / off topic Epic fail Lol / Lol / LOL / LOL Something burns Test Something takes out / decides Happy ending We don’t live in a fairy tale / you don’t live in a fairy tale / but you thought you were in a fairy tale? I am under the table. +1. Chocolate medal Office plankton/ office trash/ office rat When I become big and important/ become big and important Without the market Epic wines True story No longer a ROFL cake Butthurt Shkolota detected/ shkololo/ shkolota Orthodoxy of the brain Captain obvious/ cap/ k.o. 80 level/ 80 lvl Grammar nazi/ Grammatik-Nazi/ grammar-nazi/ grammatical Nazi/ national linguist/ linguistic fascist/ literate oprichnik Bayan/ boyan/ bayan	Face palm/ hand Poker face	Office plankton/ office trash/ office rat Default City Shkolota detected/ shkololo/ shkolota Orthodoxy of the brain Grammar nazi/ Grammatik-Nazi/ grammar-nazi/ grammatical Nazi/ national linguist/ linguofascist/ literate oprichnik	Stop tolerating this Cleanse karma We don’t live in a fairy tale / we don’t live in a fairy tale / but you thought you were in a fairy tale? Get excited about something When I become big and important / become big and important	+1 Without bazaar True story	Chocavo

Thus, we can see some features of phraseological units from social networks– they are all very emotional, judgmental and, as a rule, are part of the youth slang of social networks. Most of them are aimed at expressing some emotion, assessment, or interpreting a phenomenon. Noteworthy is such a phraseological unit as “default city,” which means the city of Moscow. Here there is an interpretation of certain historical events that took place in our country. In addition, we can note such a phraseological unit as “stop putting up with this,” the author of which was V.V. Zhirinovsky. This phraseology has become widespread on the Internet.

We can also say that most of the phraseological units were borrowed from English (as a variant of the American one).

Next, let us note such an interesting phenomenon on the Internet as “memes”. “A meme (English meme, read as “mime”), also known as a media virus, is an idea, image or any other object of the intangible world that is transmitted from person to person verbally, non-verbally, via the Internet or whatever else. A meme can change within the wearer and influence him and society as a whole.” All phraseological units associated with “faces” are essentially Internet memes. It is characteristic that in the original version they are accompanied by a certain picture, which becomes stable, just like the expressions themselves.

To summarize, we can say that the phraseology and vocabulary of the modern Russian language, being the most mobile level of the language, reflects all the changes occurring in human society(namely in its various spheres: social, political, economic, scientific, production and technical, cultural and everyday life of a particular country).

We can conclude that for each of the listed areas the phraseological composition will be different and will have its own characteristics, although this does not exclude the presence of the so-called. “neutral” or “cross-style” phraseology, characteristic of all spheres of human life and speech styles.

In addition, phraseology and vocabulary are different for each era. The differences are especially noticeable if there have been dramatic changes in the country. So, for example, in our country there is a transition from the Soviet era to the post-Soviet era.

New phraseology, as well as new vocabulary, is formed because new realities appear that must be reflected in the language. In turn, any existing (or existing realities and events) can be interpreted in a new way. Then this causes a change in one or another phraseological unit. For example: authorities -> authorities -> power structures.

It is interesting to note that some phraseological units (this is perhaps especially typical for the socio-political sphere) are born in the speech of politicians and public figures. It is typical for the Internet environment that one or another stable phrase is born from a video clip, a computer game, or is directly borrowed from Internet memes.

Thus, in my opinion, it is quite possible to trace the state of modern society and create a certain cross-section through the study of modern phraseological and lexical (the so-called “ keywords era") of the composition of the language.

4. List of sources used

1. Modern Russian language: Textbook for higher education students educational institutions students studying in philological areas and specialties / N. S. Valgina, D. E. Rosenthal, M. I. Fomina. - M.: Logos, 2001. – 528 p.

2. Kostomarov V. G. Language taste of the era: From observations of the speech practice of mass media / V. G. Kostomarov. - St. Petersburg: Zlatoust, 1999. – 319 p.

3. Educational phrasebook. - M.: AST. E. A. Bystrova, A. P. Okuneva, N. M. Shansky. 1997.

4. http://lurkmore.to/

5. http://vk.com/

Vocabulary

Phraseology (Greek phrasis – ‘expression’, logos – ‘teaching’) is a section of the language of knowledge that studies stable combinations in language.

Phraseology is also called a set of stable combinations in the language as a whole, in the language of one writer, in the language of a separate work of art, etc.

Stable non-free phrases (beat the thumbs, count crows, get into trouble, win, etc.) are also called phraseological units (PU), phraseological units, phraseological units, phrasemes.

A phraseological unit is a combination of two or more lexical units, integral in meaning, stable in composition and structure.

As is known, phraseological units arise from a free combination of words, which is used in figurative meaning. Gradually, the portability is forgotten, erased, and the combination becomes stable. Depending on how much the nominative meanings of the components of a phraseological unit are erased and merged, how strong the figurative meaning is in them, 4 types of phraseological units are distinguished: phraseological adhesions, phraseological unities, phraseological combinations, phraseological expressions.

Phraseological adhesions are absolutely indivisible, indecomposable stable combinations, the general meaning of which is completely independent of the meaning of the words that make them up: to hit the bullshit, sharpen the bows, eat the dog, kill the worm, charm the teeth, get into trouble, a mosquito won’t undermine your nose, topsy-turvy and etc.

Phraseological adhesions arose on the basis of figurative meanings of their components, but later these figurative meanings became incomprehensible from the point of view modern language. For example, the meaning of the phraseological unit mosquito will not undermine the nose - “you can’t find fault, because it’s done very well” - does not follow from the meanings of the words mosquito and undermine. But if we remember that in the Old Russian language the word sharpen meant “slip”, then we will understand the figurative meaning of the entire expression. We see something similar in phraseological units get into trouble (prosak – “device for twisting ropes”), etc.

Thus, in phraseological fusions the connection between direct and figurative meanings has been lost; the figurative has become the main one for them. That is why phraseological fusions cannot be translated into other languages. Untranslatability is one of the signs of phraseological units.

Phraseological fusions have characteristic features:

1) they contain outdated words(necroticisms) - words that are not used anywhere except for this fusion, are incomprehensible from the point of view of modern language (upward torso, not visible in sight, to create antimonies, to set strekacha, to create shura-muras, to sharpen lasses)

2) they contain archaic grammatical forms(dark voa in the clouds - 'in the clouds', not knowing their own - 'they did not recognize', a proverb - 'among the nations', doubting nothing - 'doubting nothing');

3) syntactic indecomposability (even if it’s a joke, say, how much in vain, headlong, headlong, on your mind, as if nothing had happened);

4) rearrangement of components is impossible;

5) impenetrability - do not allow additional words into their composition.

6) approach in meaning to a separate word (chickens don’t peck - a lot, at first light - early, headlong - quickly, carelessly - lazily)

Phraseological unities are semantically indivisible, indecomposable stable combinations, the meanings of which are motivated by the meaning of their constituent components: keeping a stone in your bosom, washing dirty linen in public, seven Fridays in a week, a shot sparrow, hanging by a thread, swimming shallowly, blood with milk, dancing under someone else's pipe, slaughter without a knife, scratch with your tongue, expose a leg, go with the flow, beat with a key, take it into your own hands, search during the day with fire, put under a cloth, etc.

Phraseological unities are somewhat closer to phraseological fusions in their imagery and metaphor. But unlike phraseological fusions, where figurative content is revealed only historically, in phraseological unities figurativeness and portability are realized from the point of view of modern language.

The connection between the components of phraseological unity is motivated. To understand phraseological unity, it is necessary to perceive its components in a figurative meaning. For example, the meaning of the expression is to make a molehill out of a molehill, i.e. ‘to greatly exaggerate something’, is revealed only if the word fly is considered to mean ‘something insignificant, small’, and the word elephant – ‘something very large’.

Characteristic signs phraseological units:

– absence of incomprehensible words from the point of view of the modern Russian language;

– preservation of the semantics of individual components;

– changes in the order of components (cast a fishing rod - cast a fishing rod;

suck it out of your finger - suck it out of your finger);

– the possibility of homonymy with free phrases (cf.: lather your head, go with the flow, sit on your neck, scratch your tongue);

– the possibility of synonymous relationships with words and other phraseological units.

Phraseological combinations are stable phrases that include words with both free and phraseologically related meanings: black horse, sensitive question, bosom friend, sudden death, biting frost, sworn enemy, stunning view, eyesore, loose concept, cry sobbing others

A component with a non-free meaning is called a constant part, or the core word of a phraseological unit, a component with a free meaning is a variable part. For example, in the combination to lower the eyes, the first component is the constant part, the second is the variable (cf. eyes, glance, gaze, etc.).

Unlike phraseological adhesions and phraseological unities, which have a holistic, indecomposable meaning, phraseological combinations are characterized by semantic decomposability. In this respect, they come close to free phrases.

Characteristic features of phraseological combinations:

1) variation of one of the components is possible (pitch hell, pitch darkness);

2) synonymous replacement of the core word is possible (stain with blood, stain with blood);

3) it is possible to include definitions (black eyebrows furrowed, guilty eyes downcast);

4) rearrangement of components is possible (search during the day with fire - search during the day with fire);

free use of one of the components and associated use of the other is mandatory.

Phraseological expressions.

The promotion of reproducibility as the main feature of phraseological units allowed Professor N.M. Shansky to further develop the classification of Academician V.V. Vinogradov and identify the fourth type of phraseological units - the so-called phraseological expressions.

Phraseological expressions are stable phraseological units that consist of words with a free nominative meaning and are semantically divisible. Their only feature is reproducibility: they are used as ready-made speech units with a constant lexical composition and a certain semantics.

Phraseological expressions include Russian proverbs and sayings (Live forever, learn forever; Finished the job - walk boldly). Some scientists include stable terms consisting of two or more words (comparative linguistics, animate noun).

From the point of view of the sphere of initial use, phraseological units of the modern Russian language have different sources. Expressions (free phrases) from everyday speech that have received a figurative, metaphorical meaning.

Wed., initial and phraseological use of phrases. A thorn in the eye can only be removed surgically - Chatsky, like a thorn in the eye. (A. Griboyedov) He carefully protected the sore spot on his leg from accidental injuries - Baklanov stung him in the most painful place.

Let's give a number of phraseological units with the indicated source and origin: suck from a finger, take from the ceiling, on your head, carry a cross, tear off your head, open (open) your eyes, the song is sung, at hand, get under your feet, sit in a puddle, tie your hands , bare your teeth, gnaw your throat, eat a peck of salt, right under your nose, etc.

Expressions from professional vocabulary and argot: pull the gimp (from gold embroidery production); pull the strap (from the speech of barge haulers); play the first violin, get into tune (from the speech of the musicians), play a role (from the speech of the actors); clumsy work without a hitch without a hitch (from the speech of carpenters, joiners), cut like a nut (from the speech of cabinetmakers); come to a dead end, put in a dead end, give the green light (from the speech of the railway workers); bit card, mix cards, juggle cards (from the speech of gamblers); bash to bash (from the speech of traders); not a kick in the teeth (from school argot), etc.

Facts from history.

In full Ivanovo - “very loudly, in full force, in full measure (shout, do something).” This phraseological unit is believed to be based on the loud announcement of royal decrees on Ivanovo Square in the Kremlin, near the bell tower of Ivan the Great.

On the back burner (put off, postpone, put away) - “for an indefinitely long time (put something off).” It is based on the following fact: Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in the village of Kolomenskoye had a long box made in a pillar where complaints were placed, which, due to the reluctance of the authorities, were not considered for a long time.

St. Bartholomew's Night - "massive, brutal beating of peaceful, defenseless, innocent people." It was based on the historical event of the mass beating of Protestant Huguenots by Catholics in Paris on the night before St. Bartholomew (August 24, 1572).

Kazan orphan. Pretend to be a Kazan orphan - “a person pretending to be unhappy, offended, helpless, etc., in order to pity someone.” Initially about the Tatar mirzas (princes), who tried after the conquest of the Kazan kingdom by the Russians (during the time of Ivan the Terrible) to receive all kinds of concessions from the Russian kings, complaining about their bitter fate.

Facts from ancient myths and legends ancient world, biblical stories.

Singing Lazarus - “pretending to be unhappy, trying to pity

cry, complain about life" From the Gospel parable about the beggar Lazarus, who lay covered in scabs at the rich man’s gate and was glad to be fed with crumbs from his table.

Cain's seal - "imprint, trace, external signs crime." From the biblical myth about the murder by Cain, the son of Adam and Eve, of his brother Abel (this was the first murder on earth), as punishment for which God marked his face with a special sign.

Pandora's Box - "the source of misfortunes, disasters" From the ancient Greek myth of Pandora, according to which people once lived without knowing any misfortunes, illnesses and old age, until Prometheus stole fire from the gods. For this, the angry Zeus sent to earth beautiful woman– Pandora; she received from Zeus a casket in which all human misfortunes were locked. Despite Prometheus's warning not to open the casket, Pandora, spurred by curiosity, opened it and scattered all misfortunes.

The rhetorician's apple is “the reason, the reason, the source of quarrels, discord.” From the ancient Greek myth about the apple brought by Paris to the goddess Aphrodite as a prize for beauty (with the inscription “The Most Beautiful”) and which caused discord between her and the goddesses Hera and Athena.

Ariadne's thread is “a way to help get out of a difficult situation.” By the name of Ariadne, the daughter of the Cretan king Minos, who, according to ancient Greek myth, helped the Athenian king Theseus kill the half-bull, half-man Minotaur and get out of the labyrinth safely with the help of a thread attached at the entrance.

Expressions from works of fiction.

There is also gunpowder in the flasks - “someone is full of strength, energy to do something, accomplish something,” an expression from the story by N.V. Gogol “Taras Bulba” (1842).

Kiseynaya young lady “frivolous, pampered person”, borrowed from the story by N.G. Pomyalovsky “Pittish Happiness” (1860).

Stigma in fluff (gun) - “someone is involved in an unseemly act, is involved in some dishonest deed,” borrowed from the fable of I.A. Krylov “The Fox and the Marmot” (1813).

A knight for an hour is a “weak-willed person, incapable of long-term struggle for noble goals,” from the title, a poem by N.A. Nekrasov “Knight for an Hour” (1863).

To the broken trough (to return) - “to return to the situation when you are deprived of everything you have acquired,” borrowed from “The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish” by A.S. Pushkin (1835).

Expressions going back to beliefs, proverbs, sayings.

Swan song is “the most recent, usually the most significant manifestation of talent and activity” (from the belief that a swan sings only once in its life - before death).

Crocodile tears - “hypocritical compassion, insincere regret” (from the belief that a crocodile cries when eating its victim).

Biting your elbows - “to regret bitterly, to be annoyed about something” (from the proverbs you can’t bite your elbow; your elbow is close, but you won’t bite).

To dig (digging) a hole means “preparing for big trouble, causing harm” (from the proverb: Don’t dig a hole for someone else, you’ll end up in it yourself)

1. Russian phraseology and expressiveness of speech

1.1 The concept of phraseology

1.2 The concept of phraseological meaning

1.3 Expressiveness of speech

2. Formation and use of forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives

2.1 The concept of degrees of comparison of qualitative adjectives

2.2 Methods of forming comparative forms

2.3 Ways to form superlatives

Bibliography

1. Russian phraseology and expressiveness of speech

1.1 The concept of phraseology

In Russian (as in a number of other languages), words are combined with each other to form phrases. Some of them are free, others are not free. Compare, for example, the use of the phrase upside down in sentences: There they lined the boat with boards; there, turning it upside down, they caulked and tarred it (G.). - At night the police burst into Taras’s house. They turned all the rooms and closets upside down (Hump.). In the first sentence, this phrase is free, each word in it retains an independent meaning and performs a specific syntactic function. Both words can be combined freely with other words: upside down, with a solid bottom; upside down, upside down, up and down, etc. Such combinations are created in the process of speech in accordance with personal perceptions and impressions as a result of a certain situation. Such combinations are not stored in our memory: circumstances change and new free combinations arise. In the second sentence, the same combination has a completely different meaning: “to bring something into disorder, into a state of chaos.” It is no longer free. Independent meaning the component words in it are weakened, since the correlation with the subject is lost, the nominative properties of the words have disappeared, so the meaning of the entire phrase is almost no longer connected with the semantics of each word separately. Lexically, such a combination is indivisible and is reproduced in speech as a ready-made speech unit. The role of the phrase as a whole is considered syntactically, and not each word separately. The connections between words in it are very limited: if you can also say upside down or use the turn upside down in the same meaning, then other combinations will completely destroy the meaning of the turn. Turns are not free and are just a stone's throw away, bringing them to fresh water in sentences: Lubentsov laughed. To him, a Far Easterner, this insignificant distance seemed funny. He remembered the Amur region, where a thousand kilometers were considered a stone's throw (Cossack); The work of the consultation brought to fresh water many things that should not have seen the light of day (M.-S.). It is impossible, for example, to use the combinations “with your foot” or “with your hand” in the same meaning. The only option to bring the turnover to fresh water is to bring it to clean water. No other substitutions are possible.

1.2 The concept of phraseological meaning

A phraseological turn, as mentioned earlier, is, first of all, distinguished from a free phrase by the generality of the meaning of the entire turn as a whole. This is precisely what allows us to distinguish a special type of meaning of the phrase - phraseological meaning, which does not coincide with the lexical meaning of the words - the components that make it up. In addition, phraseological meaning, as a rule, is not direct, but figurative, arising on the basis of the primary, nominative meanings of words in certain free combinations. Consequently, phraseological meaning has not a direct, but an indirect connection with the subject. Further, in comparison with the direct meaning of words in the semantics of phraseological units, there is a noticeable increase in the evaluativeness of the expressed names, features, actions, etc. (cf.: to go broke - to go down the drain; to starve - to put your teeth on a shelf, etc.). So, the phraseological meaning does not consist of the sum lexical meanings words, their components, and represents a new semantic generalized type of meaning of the entire phrase as a whole. Phraseologisms, like words, can be both unambiguous (the majority of them) and polysemantic. For example, the unambiguous phrases are Achilles' heel, take in tow, Babylonian pandemonium, keep moving, right off the bat, and many others. etc. The phrases have two or more meanings: bet, beat, take (take) yours, give (give) your word, hang in the air, golden hands and many more. etc. Different meanings The phraseological unit tongue swallow makes it possible to use it in various synonymous rows. So, in the meaning of “there is something tasty,” its synonym will be the phrase lick your fingers. And in the case when they talk about a person who does not want or cannot talk about something, they use several synonymous phrases: swallowing the tongue - like putting water in your mouth - dumb as a fish, etc. Quantitatively synonymous series of phraseological units are also unequal, as well as synonymous series of individual words. Some of them consist of two revolutions, others - of three or more. Wed: shelve - put under the cloth; understand at a glance - grasp on the fly; keep your eyes open - keep your eyes open - prick up your ears; an empty space - a zero without a stick - the last spoke in the chariot; get into trouble - hit the sky with your finger - sit in a galosh (in a puddle); with all your might - with all your might - with all your spirit; in the blink of an eye - in two counts - in one moment - in one swoop - one foot here, the other there; tear off the mask - reveal the cards - catch him red-handed - pin him to the wall; berries of the same field - two boots of a pair - made from the same dough - both on the same shoe - Siamese twins - smeared with the same world, etc. The phraseological composition also contains antonymic phraseological units, the functions of which are similar to synonymous phrases. In terms of meaning and structure, antonymous phraseological units most often arise as a result of replacing one of the components with a semantically correlative antonym. For example: at someone else's expense - at one's own expense, not going crazy - not coming to mind, etc. However, there are also phraseological antonyms with different structures. For example: roll down an inclined plane - go uphill. In general, the antonymy of phraseological units is not as widespread as their synonymy.

1.3 Expressiveness of speech

The lexical and phraseological system is directly related to human activity in society and the development of the latter. Vocabulary and phraseology (especially the first) of all levels of language are considered the most permeable. In the development of Russian vocabulary and phraseology, the following main directions can be distinguished: 1) the emergence of new words and phrases; 2) changing the meanings of already existing lexical and phraseological units; 3) the loss of words and phrases from active use; 4) the return to life of old words.

Thus, the lexical and phraseological composition of the Russian language is in a state of continuous movement. It reflects all the changes taking place in the social, political, economic, scientific, industrial, technical, cultural and everyday life of the country.

2. Formation and use of forms of degrees of comparison of names

adjectives

2.1 The concept of degrees of comparison of qualitative adjectives

In modern Russian, qualitative adjectives have two degrees of comparison: comparative and superlative. As for the so-called positive degree, it is the initial form for the formation of the main degrees of comparison. Adjectives in the “positive degree” do not contain comparison in their meaning; they characterize quality without reference. Wed: clever man- This man is smarter than many; beautiful flower- He brought a flower much more beautiful than mine, etc. An adjective in a comparative degree denotes a quality characteristic of a given object to a greater or lesser extent in comparison with the same qualities in other objects, as well as in comparison with the qualities that this object previously had or will have in the future. For example: This book is more interesting than the previous one; He became noticeably more absent-minded. The superlative adjective indicates the most high degree qualities in an object compared with the same qualities in other similar objects. For example: Of all those around him, he was the smartest person; They picked it up the most beautiful flowers.

Thus, the superlative form can be used as a means of comparing some quality only in homogeneous objects similar to one another (for example: Of all those present, this was the most noticeable person), while the comparative form is a means of comparing some quality or one and the same person, object in different time his existence (for example: He is now calmer than before) or a wide variety of objects (for example: The house turned out to be higher than the tower).

2.2 Methods of forming comparative forms

In modern Russian, there are two main ways of forming the comparative degree: 1) using the suffixes -ee(s) and -e, for example: Somehow everything is more friendly and stricter, somehow everything is dearer to you. And more dear than an hour ago (Tvard.). This method is called synthetic or simple; 2) using the words more, less. This method is called analytical, or complex (descriptive), for example: stronger, less high. Synthetic forms of the comparative degree are equally used in all styles of speech of the modern Russian language, while analytical forms are used most often in official, business, and scientific styles. Forms of the comparative degree are sometimes complicated by the prefix po- to soften the degree of predominance of quality over the form of the comparative degree formed in the usual way (stronger, older, taller). Such formations are, as a rule, part of the conversational style of speech, as they have greater expression. Individual adjectives form comparative forms in two ways: both with the help of the suffix -ee (further, more), and with the help of the suffix -e (further, more); Moreover, the first forms are used mainly in the bookish style of speech.

In some cases, on the contrary, the form in -ee is colloquial compared to the form in -e; for example, bolder and louder are colloquial variants, and bolder, louder are common literary ones. From adjectives with stems in g, k, x, d, t, st, in, forms of the comparative degree are formed using the suffix -e, which is unproductive for the modern Russian language. In this case, alternation of consonants is observed. For example: expensive - more expensive, distant - further, deaf - more remote, young - younger, rich - richer, simple - simpler, cheap - cheaper.

Adjectives used in the synthetic form of comparison do not change in gender, number and case; they do not agree with nouns. In a sentence, the synthetic form of the comparative degree most often serves as a predicate (for example: In the conditions of the Far North, a deer is tougher than a dog) and less often as a definition (for example: He wanted to consult an older, more experienced person about everything). The analytical form (complex), which includes a full adjective, usually acts as a determiner in a sentence (for example: A more convenient shelter would have saved us all), although it can also be a predicate (for example: This shelter is more convenient). If in compound complex shape The degree of comparison includes a short adjective, then it is a predicate and with it, as a rule, the comparative conjunction than is used (for example: The eldest son was more friendly than the younger). Individual adjectives, for example, bulky, friendly, businesslike, cruel, desolate, caustic and others, do not have a synthetic form of degree of comparison. From them the form of the degree of comparison can be derived only analytically. For example: more friendly, more businesslike, more cruel. Individual adjectives form suppletive forms, i.e. from other roots: good is better, bad is worse.

2.3 Ways to form superlatives

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The study of the entire set of phraseological units of the Russian language involves their classification according to a wide variety of criteria.
V.V. Vinogradov, proposed one of the most famous and widespread classifications in linguistics, based on varying degrees idiomaticity (unmotivated) of the components in the phraseological unit.

There are three types of phraseological units.

Phraseological fusions are stable combinations, the generalized holistic meaning of which is not derived from the meaning of their constituent components, i.e. is not motivated by them from the point of view current state Vocabulary: get into trouble, get into trouble, don't hesitate, eat a dog, out of nowhere, out of nowhere, no matter what, was not, no matter what. We don’t know what “prosak” is (that’s what a machine for weaving nets was called in the old days), we don’t understand the word baklushi (wooden blanks for spoons, the production of which did not require skilled labor), we don’t think about the meaning of outdated grammatical forms (not at all), hesitating (doubting). However, the holistic meaning of these phraseological units is clear to every Russian person. Thus, etymological analysis helps to clarify the motivation for the semantics of modern phraseological fusion. However, the roots of phraseological units sometimes go back to such distant times that linguists do not come to an unambiguous conclusion about their origin [See, for example, differences in the interpretation of phraseological units a coward to celebrate by B. A Larin and N. A. Meshchersky in the book: Mokienko V. M. Slavic phraseology. M., 1989. S. 18-19].
Phraseological adjunctions can include obsolete words and grammatical forms: it’s a joke to say (not a joke!), the boron cheese flared up (not raw!), which also contributes to the semantic indecomposability of phrases.
Phraseological unities are stable combinations, the generalized holistic meaning of which is partly related to the semantics of their constituent components, used in a figurative meaning: come to a dead end, hit the key, go with the flow, hold a stone in your bosom, take it into your own hands, bite your tongue. Such phraseological units can have “external homonyms”, i.e. phrases coinciding with them in composition, used in a direct (non-metaphorical) meaning: We had to to go with the flow rivers for five days. I was so thrown into a bump that I bit my tongue and suffered from pain.
Unlike phraseological fusions, which have lost their figurative meaning in the language, phraseological unities are always perceived as metaphors or other tropes. Thus, among them we can distinguish stable comparisons (like a bath leaf, like on needles, like a cow licked its tongue, like a cow’s saddle), metaphorical epithets (tinned throat, iron grip), hyperboles (golden mountains, a sea of pleasure, as far as the eye can see), litotes (about the size of a poppy seed, grasping at a straw). There are also phraseological units that are periphrases, i.e. descriptive figurative expressions that replace one word: distant lands - “far”, there are not enough stars from the sky - “close-minded”, slanting fathoms in the shoulders - “mighty, strong” .
Some phraseological units owe their expressiveness to the pun, the joke underlying them: a hole from a donut, from a sleeve from a vest, not oneself, a week without a year, stabbing without a knife. The expressiveness of others is based on the play of antonyms: neither alive nor dead, neither give nor take, neither a candle to God nor a damn poker, more or less; at the clash of synonyms: from the frying pan into the fire, the mind has gone beyond the mind, pouring from empty to empty, around and around. Phraseological unities give speech special expressiveness and folk-colloquial coloring.
Phraseological combinations are stable phrases, the meaning of which is motivated by the semantics of their constituent components, one of which has a phraseologically related meaning: to lower one’s gaze (head) (there are no stable phrases in the language “to lower one’s hand”, “to lower one’s foot”). The verb to lower in the meaning “to lower” has a phraseologically related meaning and is not combined with other words. Another example: a sensitive issue (situation, position, circumstance). The adjective ticklish means “requiring great caution, tact,” but the possibilities of its compatibility are limited: you cannot say “ticklish proposal,” “ticklish decision,” etc.
The phraseologically related meaning of the components of such phraseological units is realized only in a strictly defined lexical environment. We say velvet season, but we won’t say “velvet month”, “velvet autumn”; general epidemic, but not “widespread morbidity”, “widespread runny nose”; general arrests, but not “total rehabilitation”, “total conviction”, etc.
Phraseological combinations often vary: frown - frown; touch a feeling of pride - hurt a feeling of pride; to win - to gain the upper hand, to fail - to fail (defeat); fear takes - anger (envy) takes, burning with impatience - burning with shame, etc.
In speech, there are cases of contamination of the components of phraseological combinations: “plays meaning” - “has a role” (instead of meaning - plays a role), “take measures” - “take steps” (instead of taking measures - take steps), “pay attention” ( from pay attention - to give importance), "to give importance" (from to pay attention - to give importance). Such errors are associative in nature and are perceived as a sharp violation of the norm.

This classification of phraseological units is often supplemented by highlighting, following N.M. Shansky so-called phraseological expressions, which are also stable, but consist of words with free meanings, i.e., they are distinguished by semantic division: Happy people do not watch the clock; To be or not to be; It's a fresh idea, but hard to believe. This group of phraseological units includes idioms, proverbs, sayings. In addition, many phraseological expressions have a fundamentally important syntactic feature: they are not phrases, but entire sentences.

The desire to separate phraseological expressions from phraseological units themselves encourages linguists to look for a more accurate name for them: sometimes they are called phraseological combinations, phraseological expressions. Clarifying the concept, sometimes it is proposed to include not all proverbs and sayings in combinations of this type, but only those that have acquired a generalized figurative metaphorical meaning and are perceived as units close to the actual phraseological units: a man in a case, from a ship to a ball, after the rain on Thursday , finest hour, etc.

Thus, in identifying the fourth, last of the considered, groups of phraseological units, scientists have not achieved unity and certainty. The discrepancies are explained by the diversity and heterogeneity of the linguistic units themselves, which are traditionally included in phraseology.

Another classification of phraseological units is based on their general grammatical features. At the same time, the following typologies of phraseological units of the Russian language are proposed.

Typology based on the grammatical similarity of the component composition of phraseological units. The following types are distinguished:

combination of an adjective with a noun: cornerstone, enchanted circle, swan song;
combination of a noun in the nominative case with a noun in the genitive case: point of view, stumbling block, reins of power, bone of contention;
a combination of a noun in the nominative case with nouns in the indirect cases with a preposition: blood and milk, soul to soul, the trick is in the bag;
combination of the prepositional case form of a noun with an adjective: on a living thread, for old times’ sake, on short leg;
combination of a verb with a noun (with and without a preposition): to glance at, sow doubts, pick up, take up the mind, lead by the nose;
combination of a verb with an adverb: get into trouble, walk barefoot, see right through;
combination of a gerund with a noun: carelessly, reluctantly, headlong.

A typology based on the correspondence between the syntactic functions of phraseological units and the parts of speech with which they can be replaced. The following types of phraseological units are distinguished:

nominal phraseological units: cornerstone, swan song. In a sentence they perform the functions of subject, predicate, and object; by the nature of connections with other words, in combination they can control any member and be controlled;
verbal phraseological units: lead by the nose, look around. In a sentence they act as a predicate; in combination with other words can agree, control and be controlled;
adjective phraseological units: oblique fathom in the shoulders, on one’s mind, blood with milk, on fish fur. They have the meaning of a qualitative characteristic and, like adjectives, appear in a sentence as a definition or a nominal part of the predicate;
adverbial or adverbial phraseological units: on a living thread, carelessly, reluctantly, face to face. They, like adverbs, characterize the quality of an action and play the role of circumstances in a sentence;
interjection phraseological units: no fluff or feather!; hell no!; neither bottom nor tire!; Good morning! Like interjections, such phraseological units express will and feelings, acting as separate undivided sentences.

It is possible to systematize phraseological units according to other criteria. For example, from the point of view of sound organization, all phraseological units are divided into those ordered by their phonics and neutral. The former combine phraseological units with a pronounced rhythmic organization: neither a stake nor a yard, quieter than water below the grass, neither be nor me crow; with rhyming elements: Fedot is not the same, naked as a falcon; with sound repetitions (assonances and alliterations): sherochka with mosherochka, keep your mouth shut, and this way and that, here and there.

The classification of phraseological units according to their origin is interesting. In this case, it is necessary to highlight the original Russian phraseology, which will include common Slavic phraseological units (a head like a falcon, neither fish nor fowl, take alive), East Slavic ones (neither stake nor yard, under Tsar Gorokh, plant a pig), Russian proper (with Gulkin nose, with the whole world, put on the back burner, in full Ivanovo, reel in the fishing rods, pull the gimp). The first have correspondences in other Slavic languages, the second - only in Ukrainian and Belarusian, and the third are characteristic only of the Russian language.

IN special group phraseological units borrowed from the Old Church Slavonic language are distinguished: forbidden fruit, the promised land, the fiend of hell, manna from heaven, a proverb, daily bread, by the sweat of the brow, bone from bone, the voice of one crying in the wilderness, Babylonian pandemonium. Their source was Christian books (Bible, Gospel), translated into Old Church Slavonic.

A significant part consists of phraseological units that came into the Russian language from ancient mythology: Achilles' heel, Gordian knot, Procrustean bed, sword of Damocles, Augean stables, Dragon's laws, Tantalum's torment, between Scylla and Charybdis, wheel of fortune, gardens of Babylon. Most of these phraseological units are also known in other languages, so it is worth emphasizing the international nature of winged combinations, which have their roots in antiquity.

Many phraseological units were borrowed from European languages at a later time. These are mainly famous quotes from world famous works of art: To be or not to be (W. Shakespeare); Abandon hope, everyone who enters here (A. Dante); a storm in a teacup (C. Montesquieu), the princess and the pea (G. H. Andersen). Some winged words attributed to great scientists and thinkers: But still it turns (G. Galileo); I know only that I know nothing (Socrates); I think, therefore I exist (R. Descartes).

Some phraseological units are tracings - a literal translation from the source language: blue stocking, time is money, kill time (French tuer le temps), honeymoon (French la lune de miel), break on the head (German: aufs Haupt schlagen), this is where the dog is buried (German: Da ist der Hund begraben).