Cheat sheet: Natural conditions and resources of Western Europe. Mountains and plains of central Europe

Long-term denudation turned the Paleozoic formations into a peneplain system. Vertical movements of Alpine age formed tectonic faults and raised the ancient peneplain to varying heights. Strong influence of glaciations (especially Ris) - and landforms, fjords in the west. The west coast differs from the east; in the east there is a system of low, sometimes leveled ledges, gently sloping down to the sea.

At an altitude of 600-1500 m in the north and 800-1900 m in the south there are monodominant spruce forests. It ranks third in Europe in terms of wood reserves (after and).

Subalpine belt at 1300-2200 m of mountain pine, rhododendron, lingonberry, blueberry.

Unlike the Alps, they are poorly distributed and poorer in species composition. In the mountains there are bears, boar, wolf, lynx, wild goat. Lots of birds.

The Danube plains are the result of Neogene subsidence. The Middle Danube Plain on the site of the middle Pannonian massif. Lower Danube - Wallachian foothill trough.

The subsidence was accompanied by sea transgressions and the accumulation of sedimentary strata. In Quaternary time - deposits of loess, which in many places are covered by young alluvial sediments. Widespread sand deposits on the plains. The Middle Danube Plain (Alfeld) between the Danube in the west and the Carpathians in the east, crossed by the Tisza. Most of the plain is covered with loess-like loams with fertile chernozem soils. In the northwest is the Lesser Hungarian Lowland (Kishalfeld), confined to the Bratislava Basin. Drained by the Danube and its tributaries Raba and Vah. The highest part of the plain is Dunantul - between the Danube and Drava rivers; here is the Bakony massif (up to 704 m) of Mesozoic limestone, tuff and lava. Bakony is a forested island among the treeless Hungarian plains. Balaton, the largest lake in Central Europe, is located in a tectonic basin in the south of Bakony, spring outlets. The Lower Danube Plain stretches from west to east for 560 km with a width of 40-120 km, is crossed by tributaries of the Danube and slopes to the south.

There is a more elevated, hilly western part - Oltenia and a lower eastern part - Muntenia. In the Danube-Balta delta there are large branches (arms): Kiliya, Sulinskoe, Georgievskoe. Every year it moves out to sea by 3 m; reed-reed vegetation, many birds, nature reserve. In the east, the plain passes into Dobruja - a low table rise (about 500 m). The climate of the plain is continental, in summer the average temperature is +20, 22°, in winter -2, -4°. Precipitation is 500-600 mm, maximum in summer, 3-4 weeks.

And its tributaries. Snow and rain-fed rivers, except for the Danube and Tisza, are not navigable.

Plains in the zone and steppes. Cultural landscapes. Previously, on the Middle Danube Plain there were areas of broad-leaved forests alternating with mixed-grass steppes. Small areas of forest remain in Dunantula. Hungarian (Pashto) soils with chernozem soils are plowed.

On the Lower Danube Plain there were feather grass steppes (kympiya), in the east they were replaced by grass-feather grass steppes on chestnut soils. Now there is soil depletion and salinization, work is being done to strengthen the sands.
Special features: the arched structure of the Carpathians and Stara Planina is a consequence of the influence of rigid structures - in the east of the European Platform, in the west of the Pannonian Middle Massif. In the Pliocene, the subsidence of the Pannonian massif, faults, lava outpourings, and the formation of a volcanic zone. As a result, the flysch and volcanic lithological zones are most developed in the Carpathians, while the limestone and crystalline zones are poorly developed. There is little development of alpine landforms, so rounded peaks (planinas) and gentle slopes predominate. There is no modern glaciation. Pronounced features of continentality. Well-preserved natural vegetation cover. In terms of forest reserves, Romania ranks third (after Finland and Sweden) in Foreign Europe. The Danube plains in the forest-steppe and steppe zone are completely plowed.

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General information . The area of ​​Europe is about 10 million km 2, incl. the islands account for about 730 thousand km 2 (the largest are Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, Spitsbergen, Iceland, Ireland, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Crete), the peninsulas account for about 1/4 of the territory of Europe (Scandinavian, Iberian, Apennine , Balkan, Kola, etc.). Population: about 700 million people (1980). The extreme continental points of Europe: in the north - Cape Nordkin, 71°08" north latitude; in the south - Cape Marroqui, 36°00" north latitude; in the west - Cape Roca, 9°31" west longitude; in the east - the eastern foot of the Polar Ural near Baydaratskaya Bay, 67°20" eastern longitude of Europe, it is washed by the seas and: in the north and north-west - the Kara, Barents, White and Norwegian; in the west - the Baltic and Northern; in the south - the Mediterranean, Marmara, Black and Azov, in the east and the southeast, the border with is most often drawn along the eastern foot of the Urals, along the Emba River to the Caspian seas , the Kuma and Manych rivers to the mouth of the Don.

In Europe, it is customary (from a physical-geographical point of view) to distinguish Eastern Europe (mostly European territory) and Western Europe (mainly foreign Europe), which, in turn, is divided into Northern, Central, and Southern Europe. Over 1/2 of the territory of Europe is occupied by the USSR (Eastern Europe), the rest - Andorra, Vatican City, Great Britain, Gibraltar, Denmark, West. Berlin, Ireland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Monaco, the Netherlands, San Marino, part of Switzerland, .

Modern political map foreign Europe developed as a result of fundamental socio-political changes caused by the victory of the Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia, the defeat of the fascist powers in World War II of 1939-45 and the victory of people's democratic and socialist revolutions in a number of countries of foreign Europe. As a result, two groups of countries with fundamentally different socio-economic systems were formed in Europe: socialist (so-called Eastern European countries), which, along with the USSR, includes Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Albania , and capitalist (Western European), which includes other countries.

Nature. The topography of Europe is dominated by lowland plains and hills; mountains occupy 17% of Europe's territory. The smoothest terrain is in eastern Europe, where there is a vast Eastern European (Russian)a plain, the southeastern part of which (Caspian Lowland) is below sea level. In Western Europe, where plains and mountains occupy approximately the same area, the main plains areCentral European, Middle Danube, Lower Danube, Paris Basin, Padan. For Northern , Western and Central Europe and the peninsulas of Northern and Southern Europe characterized by low and middle mountains. Among them stands out big number ancient massifs; Armorican, Central French, Czech, etc. The most significant mountains are the Alps (height up to 4807 m, Mont Blanc), Carpathians, Pyrenees, Scandinavian, Apennines, mountains Balkan Peninsula. The Urals stretches along the eastern border of Europe. Often referred to as Europe. The active ones are mainly in the Mediterranean and Iceland, where active activity is associated with manifestations of modern volcanism.

The climate is predominantly temperate, in the west it is oceanic, with mild winters and cool summers, in the east it is continental, with snowy, frosty winters and hot or warm summers. The northern regions and Arctic islands have a harsh subarctic and arctic climate. Southern Europe has a Mediterranean climate, with mild, humid in winter and hot summer. The average temperature in January is from -24° C on the Arctic islands to +12° C in the south, in June, respectively, in the west up to 29° C. Precipitation per year ranges from 1500-2000 mm (in some places more) in the mountains, up to 200 mm or less on the Caspian lowland; The aridity of the climate generally increases from northwest to southeast. In most of Europe, precipitation occurs mainly in the warm half of the year, in the Mediterranean - mainly in winter. The glaciation area is over 116 thousand km 2, the main centers of glaciation are the Arctic islands, Iceland, the Scandinavian mountains, and the Alps.

On the plains of Europe, calm-flowing rivers predominate, among them the Volga (the largest in Europe), the Dnieper, Don, Pechora, Northern Dvina, Danube, Vistula, Odra, Elbe, Rhine, Seine, Loire, Rhone, Tagus, Po. All of these rivers are navigable, some are connected by canals, and many are used for hydroelectric purposes. In Fennoscandia, short rapids rivers with weakly developed valleys with lake-like extensions predominate; in mountainous areas, rivers have a large drop, and there are waterfalls. The largest lakes in Europe are Ladoga, Onega, Wenern, Chudskoye, Balaton, Geneva.

The flora and fauna of Europe belongs to the Holarctic kingdom. On islands Arctic OceanArctic deserts are developed; on the mainland, tundras, forest-tundras, forests (taiga, mixed and broad-leaved), forest-steppes, and steppes alternate from north to south; in southern Europe - subtropical Mediterranean forests and shrubs, in the southeast - semi-deserts. In the highest mountain systems (Alps, Carpathians and some others) there is an altitudinal zone with a consistent change from bottom to top of mountain forests, meadows and landscapes of the nival zone. A large area is dominated by cultural landscapes. There are numerous nature reserves, national parks and other protected areas.

Geological structure and metallogeny. The ancient core of the European continent is occupied by its northern and eastern parts, with a foundation of Archean-Early Proterozoic age (see map).

From the north-west, the tectonic nappes of the Scandinavian Caledonides, composed of riftogenic formations of the upper Riphean - Vendian, eu- and miogeosynclinal strata of the Cambro-Silurian, are thrust onto the East European platform; At the base of the innermost covers, relics of the crust of the Proto-Atlantic Ocean or its marginal sea are known. These nappes have undergone noticeable metamorphism; they are unconformably overlain by Devonian clastic sediments (molasse), filling individual grabens. To the north, the Scandinavian Caledonides continue towards Western Spitsbergen, and to the southeast - the British Isles. The British Caledonides are significantly different in structure from the Scandinavian ones; they have two main zones: the northwestern (northern highlands of Scotland), metamorphic, and the southeastern (southern highlands of Scotland, northern England and Wales), non-metamorphic. The first, thrust in the northwest, towards the Precambrian platform massif in northwestern Scotland and the Hebrides, is composed of Riphean-Vendian and Cambro-Lower Ordovician strata, which experienced major deformations, metamorphism and granitization in the Early Ordovician (Grampian phase); the second is characterized by a gradual weakening of dislocations to the southeast, in the direction of the platform massif of the Midlands of England, composed of Cambro-Silurian rocks, underlain by ophiolites in the north, deformed at the end of the Silurian - beginning of the Devonian. In the south of Ireland and England, the outer zone of the Central European Hercynides is thrust onto the Caledonides, and to the east, onto the Midland massif; on the continent, the northern front of the Hercynides stretches through northeastern France, Belgium, Germany, the German Democratic Republic to Poland (Odra line), hiding further under the Alpine thrusts of the Carpathians, and is accompanied in a number of areas by forward troughs (Franco-Belgian and Ruhr, as well as the Upper Silesian coal basin ).

The Hercynides occupy a significant area within Central Europe and the Iberian Peninsula. Their outer zone is composed of thick Devonian clay-shale and Lower Carboniferous flysch and was deformed in the Middle Carboniferous. The outer zone is separated by a narrow rise of the metamorphic base from the inner one, the section of which is formed by sandy-shale deposits of the Ordovician-Silurian, as well as shale or carbonate strata of the Devonian - Lower Carboniferous. The age of the deformations is the beginning and middle of the Carboniferous. In the Central Zone, stretching through the south of Brittany and the Vendée into the French Massif Central, the Vosges, the Black Forest to the Bohemian (Bohemian) Massif, rocks of the metamorphic complex of the late Precambrian appear on the surface, including in places the lower Paleozoic and host Middle and Late Paleozoic age. This zone experienced the first deformations in the Devonian and the final ones before the Middle Carboniferous. Its analogue, and initially, probably, a western continuation, is the Central Iberian zone with a northwestern - southeastern strike. To the southeast of it, analogues of the external and internal zones of the Central European Hercynides are developed, to the north-west, as well as to the south of the Central zone of Central Europe, a similar sequence of zones is observed, but with a southern (on the Iberian Peninsula - north-eastern) direction of displacement along thrusts. Within the Hercynides, a large number of intermontane troughs and depressions of medium and small size are known, filled with continental coal-bearing deposits of the Middle and red-colored strata of the Upper Carboniferous and Permian with the participation of volcanics.

Between the southwestern edge of the East European ancient platform and the northern front of the Hercynids, partially overlapping them, there is a vast and deep Central European depression (mega-syneclise), which continues in the northwest into the North Sea, where its constituent rocks unconformably overlie the Caledonides. Within the continent, the depression apparently has a foundation of different ages - Caledonian, Baikal, and in some places, possibly even more ancient. In its modern contours, the Central European Basin formed in the Permian and experienced intense subsidence in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. Due to the development of the Middle Permian salt-bearing strata, the so-called. Zechstein, numerous salt domes arose in the depression. The depression is oil and gas bearing, especially within the North Sea. Smaller depressions, usually called basins, which arose in the late Paleozoic, were superimposed on the internal parts of the Hercynian fold system. The most significant of them are the Paris and Aquitaine basins containing deposits and.

In southern Europe, the Hercynides are overlain by the Alps, which include the Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians, Balkans, as well as the Andalusian Mountains (Cordillera-Betica), Apennines and Dinaric Mountains. The Alpine geosyncline arose on the Hercynian foundation, fragmented and overlain by carbonate Triassic, in the process of stretching and spreading of the continental crust, which led at the end of the Triassic - beginning of the Jurassic to the new formation of a basin with oceanic-type crust, now appearing as part of ophiolite nappes. The formation of the latter began at the end of the Jurassic, with the first compression pulses, and continued in subsequent eras of deformation, up to the Miocene, and in some places even later. As a result, the Alpine structures acquired a very complex ridge structure, with thrusting in the Alps, Carpathians and Balkans, as well as in the Cordillera-Betica to the north, in the Apennines and Dinarides - Hellenids - towards the Adriatic Sea, in the Pyrenees - to the north and south. In front of the fold-cover structures, forward troughs were formed - Pre-Pyrenees, Pre-Alpine, Pre-Carpathian, etc., and in their rear - back and intermountain troughs, of which the largest is Pannonian, common to the Carpathians and Dinarides. All of them are made of thick clastic (molasse) strata of Oligocene-Neogene age. The formation of most of the depressions that now make up the Mediterranean Sea - Algerian-Provence, Tyrrhenian, Adriatic, Aegean, which absorbed individual parts of the Alpine structures, also dates back to the Oligocene-Miocene. At the same time, the Western European rift system arose, including the Rhine and Rhone grabens. At the same time, an outbreak of volcanic activity occurred, affecting not only the Alpine belt (the periphery of the Tyrrhenian basin, the Pannonian and Aegean basins), but also the epi-Hercynian platform (the Central French and Czech massifs, the Rhine and Rhone grabens, etc.).

The Caledonian metallogeny of Europe was most clearly manifested in the Scandinavian geosynclinal-fold belt in Norway and Great Britain. At the early stage of the geosynclinal regime, numerous pyrite-polymetallic deposits in Norway and Sweden arose here in connection with basaltoid volcanism. At a later stage, in connection with granitoid magmatism, hydrothermal polymetallic and gold ore deposits were formed, known, for example, in Great Britain.

The Hercynian metallogeny is most typical of the Central European Hercynides. An early stage is distinguished with basaltoid magmatism, accompanied by minor igneous deposits of titanomagnetites and large pyrite-polymetallic deposits of the Rio Tinto type in Spain. At a later stage, in connection with granitoid magmatism, numerous hydrothermal deposits of non-ferrous metal ores arose. The metallogeny of the activated sections of the platform is clearly manifested in the form of belts of alkaline rocks with rare metal and apatite mineralization of the Kola Peninsula of the USSR and Norway. The largest Lower Rhine-Westphalian and Donetsk coal basins belong to the Hercynian stage of geological history.

Alpine metallogeny manifested itself within the Caucasus-Balkan-Mediterranean belt. The early stage of the Alpine stage is characterized by copper-pyrite deposits of the Caucasus, Carpathians, and partly the Alps; the late, orogenic stage is characterized by skarn and hydrothermal deposits of tungsten and molybdenum ores, gold, lead and porphyry copper deposits. Among the sedimentary geosynclinal formations of the Alps there are large deposits of the Mediterranean bauxite province, and sedimentary deposits of iron and manganese are found.

Along the front of the geosynclinal-folded belts of the Caledonides, Hercynides and Alps of Europe there are forward troughs of the corresponding age, containing deposits of oil, gas, salts, sulfur (Pre-Carpathian trough).

Minerals of foreign Europe. On the territory of foreign Europe there are large deposits of oil and gas, and , , and some others (see map, see table).

Among other continents, foreign Europe ranks 1st in the world in terms of reserves, 2nd in coal reserves, gas fields of the Po River Valley in Italy, and the Gela and Ragusa fields on the island of Sicily (Italy). A sharp turn in exploration work in foreign Europe occurred in 1959 after the discovery of one of the world's largest gas fields - Groningen (Slochteren) in the Netherlands. Active geological prospecting and exploration began in the North Sea, which led to the discovery of a number of large and major offshore oil and gas fields in the UK, the Netherlands, Norway and Denmark. In total, 21 are known within foreign Europe with a total area of ​​about 2800 thousand km.

Most of the basins are associated with areas of development of platforms of different ages (Precambrian East European, Baikal-Caledonian Central European and Hercynian Western European). The total area of ​​platform-type basins is 1,400 thousand km 2 . The remaining basins are associated with the area of ​​development of Alpine folded mountain structures and zones of their articulation with platforms. The overwhelming majority of oil and gas reserves are concentrated in Europe's largest Central European oil and gas basin (the North Sea), as well as in the Pre-Carpathian-Balkan oil and gas basin, the Aquitaine oil and gas basin, the Adriatic-Ionian oil and gas basin, and partly in the Baltic oil and gas region. The main productive horizons are confined to Phanerozoic deposits.

Among the countries of foreign Europe, Albania, Bulgaria, Great Britain, Hungary, East Germany, Greece, Denmark, Ireland, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, France, Germany, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia have proven oil and gas reserves. The most significant reserves are in the UK and Norway. At the beginning of 1983, 752 oil and 804 gas fields were discovered in foreign Europe. Of these, the Groningen gas field is gigantic, 47 fields (26 oil and 21 gas) belong to the category of large and largest (oil reserves from 50 to 500 million tons, gas reserves from 50 to 500 billion m 3), the remaining fields are medium-sized and small ones. The largest fields in the socialist countries: oil fields - Moreni-Gura-Ocnice (Romania), Aldieu (Hungary); gas - Salzwedel-Pekkensen (GDR), Przemysl-Jaksmanice (Poland). The main proven hydrocarbon reserves (over 80%) are concentrated at a depth of 1 to 3 km; the interval of 3-5 km contains 17% of the reserves.

The total reserves of all types of coal in foreign Europe are estimated at 873 billion tons, reliable reserves at 243 billion tons, of which about 642 billion tons are hard coals and 230 billion tons are brown coals (1983). The largest reserves among European countries are located in Germany, Great Britain, Yugoslavia, Poland, East Germany (brown coal), Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria (brown coal), Romania, France. Significantly smaller reserves are concentrated in the Netherlands, Greece (mainly brown coal), Spain, Belgium, Austria (brown coal). Most of the deposits of hard coal are associated with Carboniferous deposits and are confined mainly to the Namurian and Westphalian stages of the Carboniferous (Belgium, Bulgaria, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Great Britain, Germany, France). The largest coal basins are the Lower Rhine-Westphalian (Ruhr), Saar, Aachen, Krefeld (Germany), South Wales, Yorkshire, South and North Scotland (Great Britain), Lorraine, Nord-Pas-de-Calais (France), Upper Silesian, Lublin (Poland), Ostrava-Karvinsky (Czechoslovakia), Dobrudzhansky and others (NRB), Spitsbergen (Norway). The deposits of the Asturian Coal Basin (Spain) are confined to deposits of Upper Carboniferous age. As an exception, there are minor coal deposits in the Permian and Jurassic formations (France, Great Britain). The thickness of individual coal seams is from 1 to 3 m; the total thickness reaches 84 m (Germany). The quality of coals is predominantly good, they have a high calorific value; these are bituminous coals, anthracites, coking coals (Great Britain, Germany). In the Lorraine coal basin (France), the coals are mainly fatty, long-flame. Coals of the Asturias Basin are predominantly gas (volatile component content up to 45%); coals of similar composition are mined in deposits in Belgium and the Netherlands. Large basins and deposits of brown coals and lignites of Eocene-Pliocene age are known: Magdeburg, Middle German, Lower Lausitz (GDR), North Bohemian and Sokolovsky (Czechoslovakia), East Maritsky (NRB), Muntenia, Comanesti (SRR), Krekansky and Kolubarsky ( SFRY), Lower Rhine (Germany), Ptolemais, Megalopolis (Greece), Köflach-Voitsberg basins (Austria). The quality of coals varies.

The deposits belong to various industrial-genetic types. There are numerous hydrothermal deposits of vein or veinlet-disseminated type in granites. These include part of the deposits of France (Limousin, Morvan, Forez, Chardon, etc.), Spain (La Virgen, Monasterio, Albarran, Esperanza, etc.), some deposits of the GDR, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. The ores of such deposits contain U from 0.14% to a few percent. Some deposits occur in Upper Paleozoic crystalline rocks. Part of the reserves is concentrated in stratiform sedimentary and sedimentary-infiltration deposits located in Permian sandstones (Le Brugeaud, Le Bois Noir, Lodève in France). Deposits in metamorphic rocks enriched in carbonaceous material are of great importance (for example, Ciudad Rodrigo in the province of Salamanca in Spain with an ore content of up to 0.15% U). A special position is occupied by deposits in black shale (up to 0.10% U) - Ranstad et al. (Sweden). Minor deposits containing 0.1-0.5% U have also been identified in Italy (Prite), Portugal (Urjeirika, etc.), Germany (Mentzenschwandt), Switzerland (Emme-Iflis), Great Britain (Mainland).

Ferrous metal ores. The main reserves of iron ore are contained in -magnetite deposits associated with Precambrian crystalline rocks -

From the shores of the Atlantic Ocean to the watershed of the Odra and Vistula, within a huge triangle that includes the territory of France (excluding the Alps and the Pyrenees), the southern part of Belgium, the middle parts of the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, lying between the plain and the foothills of the Alps, the western part of Czechoslovakia and Central Poland, there are some general features of nature. Their features create a mosaic relief, formed on the basis of Paleozoic folded structures, reworked by later processes, and the influence of the Atlantic Ocean. Flat-topped mountain ranges, nowhere reaching a height of 2000 m, low plateaus and depressions with hilly or stepped relief, adjust the temperature and precipitation coming from the Atlantic, creating differences in the types of soils and vegetation, as well as in the conditions of economic activity. The diversity of landscapes, due to differences in height, steepness and exposure of slopes, the degree of isolation of depressions, and position in relation to the Atlantic, is a feature of this region. Also characterized by diversity natural resources, long-standing, albeit uneven settlement and development of the territory, a high degree of change in nature by economic activity.

In the west, within France, two massifs stand out - Central and Armorican, separated by depressions, which are expressed in relief in the form of flat lowlands or hilly plains. The Massif Central, or the Central Plateau of France, the most extensive and highest in the extra-alpine part of Central Europe, is a vast dome-shaped uplift composed of highly folded metamorphosed rocks and complicated by later faults and recent volcanism. In the Neogene central part array

Deep cracks crossed in various directions, volcanic eruptions occurred along them and powerful stratovolcanoes rose, the activity of which was evident until the beginning of the Anthropocene. Volcanoes form chains or rise in isolated massifs. The summit of the Mont Dore volcano (1885 m) is the highest point not only of the Massif Central, but of the entire region. In the south and southwest, crystalline rocks are covered with strata of Jurassic limestone, which make up the vast Kos plateau, known for the widespread development of karst phenomena and typical karst topography. Its surface is pitted with deep craters and quarries and cluttered with limestone fragments. This area, almost everywhere deserted and monotonous, is used mainly for pasture. The eastern and southeastern margins of the Massif Central are raised along faults to a height of 1700 m and are called the Cevennes. From the Mediterranean Sea, they give the impression of a high and highly dissected mountain range with steep stepped slopes cut by deep valleys.

The Armorican massif in northwestern France did not experience such intense uplift and fragmentation in the Neogene as the Central one. Repeated subsidence fragmented it into separate areas, separated by vast depressions.

Between the Massif Central, the coast of the Bay of Biscay and the northern foot of the Pyrenees lies the Garonne Lowland, or Aquitaine Basin, composed of sedimentary deposits of Paleogene and Neogene-Quaternary age, which are products of the destruction of the Pyrenees Mountains. In the southern part of the lowland, deep river valleys and ravines cut the surface into a series of asymmetrical plateaus. Towards the north, the surface of Aquitaine decreases and becomes increasingly flat. Along the coast of the Bay of Biscay, to the south of the Gironde estuary, which cuts deep into the land for many kilometers along a straight, low-lying coastline, stretches the Landes - a strip of sand dunes covered with pine forests, among which lagoon lakes shine. Until the middle of the 19th century. the dunes remained mobile, but were then secured by artificial plantations of maritime pine.

To the north of Aquitaine lies a lowland through which the Loire River flows. The crystalline rocks of the Armorican massif lie shallow there, in some places they are covered by marine sediments and river alluvium, but in some areas they come to the surface.

In the north, the Loire Lowland connects with the North French, or Paris Basin, an area with varied terrain. The Paris Basin is a depression with gradually rising edges, filled with marine sediments of Cretaceous and Paleogene age, with the youngest rocks lying in the center of the depression, and increasingly older rocks coming to the surface towards the outskirts. This structural feature is well expressed in the eastern part of the area. The Seine and its tributaries flow through the Paris Basin, dissecting its surface. The southern and western parts of the basin are characterized by hilly terrain, in the eastern part cuesta ridges are pronounced; they extend concentrically with respect to the outskirts of Paris, towards which their long, gentle slopes face. The ridges are composed of hard carbonate rocks of Jurassic, Cretaceous and Paleogene age. The most clearly visible in the relief is the cuesta Ile-de-France, closest to Paris, and the Champagne ridge, composed of limestone and white chalk. The Argonne sandstone ridge rises even further to the east.

Between the cuesta plateaus there are wide depressions filled with loose sandy-clayey sediments and irrigated by large rivers. The surface of cuesta ridges, as a rule, is almost devoid of watercourses, weakly dissected and karstified, and the scalloped edges are cut by erosion.

In the east, the Paris Basin continues with the Lorraine Cueste Plateau. The cuestas of Lorraine are composed of Jurassic limestones and Triassic sandstones, in some places they reach a height of 700 m, they are dissected by deep valleys of tributaries of the Rhine, Moselle and Meuse.

To the east, the ruggedness of the relief increases. The surface along the Rhine is especially varied. In the south, the river flows along the bottom of the wide Upper Rhine Rift, which in the Paleogene was occupied by a sea bay, which subsequently closed and dried. Marine and lagoon-lacustrine deposits at the bottom of the rift, which in relief corresponds to the Upper Rhine Plain, are overlain by loess-like deposits and Rhine alluvium. On both sides of the Upper Rhine Plain rise asymmetrical massifs - the Vosges and the Black Forest. With steep step-fault slopes they face the Rhine, and to the west and east they descend gently. The massifs are higher in the southern part (up to 1400 m). To the north, as folded Paleozoic complexes disappear under the cover of horizontal strata of Triassic sandstones, they gradually decrease, while the highly dissected relief of dome-shaped massifs and deep valleys is replaced by the relief of monotonous plateaus.

North of the Upper Rhine Plain, the Rhine flows within the Rhine Slate Mountains, or Rhine Slate Massif. Its flat surface, composed of Devonian crystalline schists, was dissected by cracks in the Neogene and experienced general uplift and volcanism. On the monotonous surface of the ancient peneplain, dome-shaped hills formed - the remains of ancient volcanoes - and crater lakes - maars - of a regular round shape. The uplift created deep epigenetic valleys of the Rhine and its tributaries. They are cut into the surface to a depth of 200 m, and their steep stepped slopes sometimes rise almost to the water. In the recent geological past, the Rhine carried its waters to the south, but subsidence to the north of the Rhine Shale massif in the area of ​​​​the so-called Cologne Bay and faults that crossed the massif in the middle part contributed to a change in the direction of the river flow and the formation of the modern Rhine valley.

East of the Black Forest, Paleozoic structures are submerged beneath Triassic and Jurassic marine sediments. There, in the basin of the right tributaries of the Rhine - the Neckar and the Main, is the Swabian-Franconian cuesta region. The relief clearly shows two cuesta ridges, facing the northwest with a steep ledge and extending from southwest to northeast from the Neckar towards the Main. The northern cuesta, no more than 500 m high, is composed of Triassic sandstones, its steep edge is strongly dissected, and in places it breaks up into separate hills. The second, higher (up to 1000 m) cuesta ridge consists of Jurassic limestones and is very clearly expressed in the relief, especially in the southwest, where it is called the Swabian Jura, or the Swabian Alb.

To the north, two horst massifs rise with sharply defined fault slopes and undulating peneplain surfaces. These are the narrow and long Thuringian Forest (982 m), strongly dissected by river erosion, and the more massive Harz with the Brocken peak (1142 m).

To the east rises the highest in Central Europe after the Central Massif, the Bohemian Massif. It consists of elevated outskirts and an internal, relatively low part. The northwestern edge of the massif - the Ore Mountains - is raised to a height of more than 1200 m. Low volcanoes rose along the fault lines in the Neogene, at the foot of which there are outlets of thermal and mineralized waters. The northeastern edge of the Bohemian Massif is formed by the Sudeten Mountains with the peak Snezka (1602 m). They do not represent a single ridge, but break up into small blocky massifs and basins separating them. In the southwest, along the edge of the Bohemian Massif, a whole system of horsts rises - the Bohemian Forest, Šumava and the Bavarian Forest. On all the marginal ridges of the Bohemian Massif, especially in the Sudetes and the Bohemian Forest, there was glaciation, traces of which are well preserved in the relief in the form of carts, trough valleys and glacial lakes. Interior The Czech massif is omitted in comparison with the outskirts. The lowest section (no more than 200 m), called the Polabskaya plain, lies along the course of the Laba (upper Elbe).

The southeastern part of the massif is occupied by the Bohemian-Moravian Upland, about 800 m high. Most of it is composed of Precambrian crystalline rocks, but the eastern margin. covered with karst Mesozoic limestones. This is an area of ​​Moravian karst known for its caves, wells and other forms of karst relief. Sites of prehistoric man have been discovered in caves.

To the north of the Bohemian Massif, between the Ore Mountains, the Thuringian Forest and the Harz, lies a small basin opening to the north. This is the Thuringian basin, analogous in relief to the Parisian and Swabian-Franconian ones, with a cuesta relief developed by the Saale River and its tributaries in the strata of Triassic and Cretaceous deposits.

In the east, within Poland, the region ends with the low Central Polish Upland, lying on the watershed of the Odra and Vistula.

The different ages, diversity of structures and petrographic composition of the rocks determined the wealth of minerals. Their deposits are associated both with crystalline and volcanic rocks of mountain ranges, and with sedimentary deposits of different ages.

In the depths of ancient crystalline massifs lie ores of non-ferrous and rare metals. Their largest deposits are lead-zinc in the Ore Mountains, polymetallic and copper in the Sudetes and lead-zinc in Srednepolska. hills.

Of the ore minerals of sedimentary origin, the most important is the iron ore of Lorraine, contained in strata of Jurassic limestone close to the surface, which facilitates its extraction. Low iron content (only 35%) and phosphorus impurities reduce the quality of the ore, but its total reserves are very large. Along the way, limestone is mined and used as a flux.

In the extreme south of France, on the Mediterranean coast, in the marine sediments of the Rhone delta and in Mesozoic limestones, there are bauxite deposits. The very name of this ore comes from the name of the town of Beau in the Rhone delta, where it was first found.

The largest coal deposits in foreign Europe were formed in the sedimentary deposits of foothill troughs and internal depressions. Among them, the first place is occupied by the Ruhr Basin on the northern slope of the Rhine Slate Mountains, in the valley of the Ruhr River. The productive coal-bearing strata of this basin lie relatively close to the surface and are convenient for development.

The second most important coal basin in foreign Europe - the Upper Silesian - is located on the Silesian Upland, mainly in Poland, its southern edge extends into Czechoslovakia. The coals of this basin lie close to the surface and are easily accessible for development. There are also significant reserves of coal in the carboniferous deposits of the foothills of the Ardennes basin, within France and partly in Belgium.

Many areas are characterized by outcrops of mineral and thermal waters along fault lines and in places of former volcanism. Of particular importance are the waters of the Auvergne in the Massif Central of France, the healing springs of Czechoslovakia, known for several hundred years, emerging at the southern foot of the Ore Mountains, and the mineral springs of the Black Forest; a large thermal area is located in the Sudetes.

The region is wide open to the Atlantic Ocean and is influenced by westerly transport of air masses throughout the year. When moving inland, the Atlantic air experiences a transformation. This process is expressed in a natural increase in the continentality of the climate when moving from west to east. But climatic conditions change not only with distance from the Atlantic; they are influenced by relief and slope exposure. The climate of the basins is, as a rule, more continental than the climate of the mountain ranges. This is reflected in large annual temperature amplitudes and a decrease in precipitation.

Winter in the western, coastal part is very mild, with an average temperature of +6, +7 ° C (Brest, Bordeaux); summer is not hot. On the Brittany Peninsula, the average temperature of the warmest month is no more than + 17°C, further south, in Bordeaux, + 21, + 22°C. Precipitation falls throughout the year mainly in the form of rain, with a maximum in winter. Annual precipitation on the coast of Brittany reaches 1500 mm, on the Aquitaine lowland it decreases to 800 mm, but on the western slopes of the Massif Central the amount of precipitation increases again. In Brittany there are no more than 20 days with frost a year, in Aquitaine - 20-40 days. Precipitation in the form of snow is rare.

A change in climatic conditions to the east can be observed already in the Paris region, where the climate takes on a certain hint of continentality. The average temperature of the coldest month in Paris is +2, +3° C, the warmest is about + 19° C. The amount of precipitation drops to 700 mm, and snow occurs on average 10-20 days a year. On the Lorraine plateau, due to its significant altitude and eastern position, the average winter temperature is about 0 ° C and almost every winter there are long frosts, and on the highest peaks of the cuesta ridges there is snow for up to 40 days a year. Approximately the same conditions are typical for the Ardennes. In the Massif Central and Vosges, winter with frost and snow lasts up to three months; summers are warm, with strong thunderstorms that cause river floods.

The south of France has the warmest areas with mild, frost-free and snowless winters and hot summers. Along the submeridional Rhone valley, the influence of the south penetrates far to the north, and the climate of the Rhone Lowland is much warmer than the climate of neighboring areas at the same latitudes. But cold air masses penetrate far to the south along the Rhone. This happens especially often in winter, when a cold downward wind blows from the north down the valley - the mistral, causing a drop in temperature all the way to the southern coast of France.

An example of a mild and warm continental climate is the climate of the Upper Rhine Plain. Along with the climate of the Aquitaine Lowland, it is considered the most favorable for agriculture in all of Central Europe. Winter there is relatively mild, but there are frosts down to -20°C, with the average temperature of the coldest month being about 0°C. An early and warm spring is replaced by a rather hot summer with an average temperature of about +20° C. Precipitation, the annual amount of which is about 600 mm, falls mainly in the spring and in the first half of summer, which is favorable for agriculture.

The continental climate is even more pronounced in the interior of the Bohemian Massif and in the Thuringian Basin. In Prague, the average temperature in January is slightly below 0° C, in July +19° C. The amount of precipitation is only 500 mm, in winter a significant part of it falls in the form of snow.

On the western slopes of the mountain ranges, even in the eastern regions of the region, about 1000 mm of precipitation falls per year, and in some cases more. On the eastern slopes their number decreases sharply. The temperature in the mountains in both summer and winter is relatively low, for example in the Harz the average January temperature is -3.5° C, the average July temperature is from -f-10°C to + 1°C. On the slopes of the northern marginal mountain ranges, especially at their peaks, climatic conditions are harsh. Constantly sharp humid blows westerly winds, frequent fogs and thick clouds. In winter there is heavy snowfall, which lasts up to six months a year. This climate is typical for the Harz and Sudetenland. But even in the Black Forest, located much further south and west, winter lasts up to four months and there is snow on the peaks even when field work begins on the Upper Rhine Plain and many plants bloom.

The ruggedness of the relief, the abundance of precipitation, and snow reserves in the mountains favor the development of the river network. Some rivers flow from source to mouth within the region, and their regime depends entirely on its characteristics. These are such large rivers of France as the Seine (776 km) and the Loire (1012 km) with their tributaries, the Saône, and some tributaries of the Rhine. Most of these rivers have a uniform flow, somewhat complicated to the east by melting snow in the mountain ranges. The rivers are of great transport importance and are accessible for navigation throughout the year.

Other rivers begin in the highlands outside the region and flow within its borders only in the middle and lower reaches. These are the Rhine and Rhone, originating in the Alps, and the Garonne, whose sources are in the Pyrenees. Floods on the Garonne occur at all times of the year, but they reach particular strength in the spring as a result of melting snow in the mountains and in the fall due to heavy rainfall. Such floods come and go very quickly.

Almost all the major rivers of the Central European Plain and many of their tributaries begin in the eastern part of the region. The upper Elbe (Laba) flows from the Sudetes, and its largest tributary, the Vltava, flows from the Bohemian Massif. On the plateau of the Swabian and Franconian Jura, the right tributaries of the Rhine - the Neckar and Main, and some tributaries of the upper Danube - originate. The Weser flows from the Thuringian Forest mountains, the Oder flows from the southeastern edge of the Sudetenland, a large tributary of which, the Warta, begins on the Central Polish Upland. Most of these rivers in the upper reaches are mountainous in nature and have significant hydropower reserves. Maximum water consumption occurs in spring; it is associated with snow melting, but there are also short-term rises in river levels during rains.

Many river systems are interconnected by canals, which increases their navigability. Particularly large canals connect the Rhine with the Seine system, the Loire with the Saone and the Main with tributaries of the upper Danube.

The endless impenetrable forests that in ancient times covered the entire territory under consideration were called Hercynian forests by the Romans. These forests for a long time were an obstacle to penetration from Southern Europe into its central and northern parts. Only a few areas of continuous forest cover were apparently always treeless. These are small areas covered with loess deposits in the Upper Rhine and Polabian plains and in the Thuringian basin. Chernozem-like soils formed on the loess and steppe-type vegetation existed. These areas were the first to be plowed.

The modern picture of vegetation cover is very far from what it was several centuries ago. The continuously growing population and the plowing of more and more land led to a strong reduction in forests. At present, natural forests have been preserved mainly on the slopes of mountain ranges, and even then not on all of them. The gentle slopes and low altitude of the mountains have never presented any obstacles to settlement. Therefore, the upper limit of settlements and cultivated vegetation lies high. The upper parts of the mountains, above the forest line, have long been used by people as summer pastures. Centuries-old grazing of livestock has led to the damage and destruction of forests and to the decline upper limit their distribution is on average 150-200 m. In many areas, forests are artificially restored. But instead of broad-leaved species, less demanding conifers of a uniform species composition are usually planted.

The Atlantic coast south of Brittany is generally devoid of forest vegetation. It is dominated by heathers, which also cover the hills of the Armorican massif.

In the south - in Languedoc and the Rhone lowlands - Mediterranean types of vegetation and soils appear. Along the Rhone Lowland they penetrate quite far to the north and are found on the lower parts of the slopes of the Cevennes. The most characteristic of these areas are shrub thickets of the garigue type, consisting of cistus, thyme, lavender and other aromatic shrubs. There are also thickets of evergreen oaks, which, however, are heavily cut down almost everywhere.

The lowlands and rolling plains from France to Czechoslovakia are generally densely populated and cultivated. In place of beech and winter oak forests, there are arable lands, gardens, as well as artificial tree plantations along roads, around populated areas and along the borders of plowed areas. These artificial plantings are especially characteristic of the plains and lower parts of the mountain ranges of France, where they are known as bocages. The bocage landscape is characteristic of the Paris Basin, the Loire Lowlands and the lower slopes of the Massif Central. In Aquitaine, instead of oak and chestnut forests, planted forests of maritime pine appeared. The forest areas are especially large on the coastal dune strip called the Landes. Pine trees began to be planted there in the last century to stabilize the sands. Although Aquitaine's pine forests suffer greatly from fires, it remains the most forested region in France.

Cultivated vegetation and human settlements rise up the mountain slopes, displacing broad-leaved forests. Particularly densely populated and deforested are the areas with highly dissected relief - the Black Forest, Vosges, Harz and Ore Mountains, where gentle ridges alternate with wide valleys. The upper limit of populated areas rises to 1000 m and even higher. Valleys and depressions in mountainous areas are especially densely populated, and among the fields and gardens there are only small areas of forests, most often planted. Only on the mountain tops are areas of dark spruce-fir forests preserved in some places.

The monotonous, poorly dissected plateaus with poorly drained surfaces are still deserted and have retained their forest cover. Significant forest areas are found in the Rhine Slate Mountains, the Ardennes and the Odenwald. To this day, dense forests cover the Sudetes, the Bohemian Forest and Šumava.

The position of the upper boundary of the forest varies depending on geographical location mountains and human influence. It lies highest on the Massif Central (1600 m); in the Vosges and Black Forest it drops to 1200-1300 m and is largely anthropogenic; at the same height, the border lies in the marginal mountains of the Czech Massif, but there it is determined mainly by natural conditions. The subalpine mountain belt is characterized by crooked forests, mountain meadows and peat bogs.

As a result of deforestation, wild forest animals disappeared or retreated to the most inaccessible mountain areas. The primeval fauna of the region did not differ from the fauna of neighboring territories, but as forests were destroyed, its composition changed greatly. Many animals have almost completely disappeared or are preserved in a semi-domesticated state in parks and reserves. Wolves, lynxes and forest cats are no longer found almost anywhere, but foxes and badgers are quite numerous. Fallow deer, roe deer and red deer are found in nature reserves and parks. Along with the disappearance of forest animals, some representatives of the steppe fauna became widespread, penetrating into the region as open spaces expanded. These are, first of all, various rodents - pests of fields. They multiplied and spread far beyond their original ranges.

Among the birds you can find almost all representatives of European forests: partridges, hazel grouse, snipe, woodcocks, etc. Songbirds and waterfowl are numerous.

In France, especially in its southern regions, some representatives of the Mediterranean fauna are common. An example is genet, which is found all the way to Normandy in damp places and near bodies of water. A special feature of the fauna of the south of France is the abundance of reptiles and amphibians. This distinguishes it from the rest of Central Europe and brings it closer to the Mediterranean.

The surface of Europe is a complex combination of mountain systems of varying heights, as well as hilly and undulating flat plains. This diversity of relief is largely due to its antiquity. The formation of the European landmass began 2–3 billion years ago, when one of the oldest areas was formed earth's crust– Eastern European platform. In relief, the platform corresponds to the East European Plain. A further increase in land area within Europe occurred around the platform in the Paleozoic era, when the Scandinavian Mountains, the Urals and mountain structures in western Europe were formed.

Loose products of the destruction of Paleozoic mountains filled intermountain depressions throughout the Mesozoic era. Repeatedly sea ​​waters flooded the land, leaving behind thick layers of sedimentary deposits. They covered the destroyed folded structures of the Paleozoic era, forming the cover of the so-called young platform in western Europe. Its foundation, unlike the Eastern European one, is not Archean, but Paleozoic in age.

In the Mesozoic era, as a result of the divergence of lithospheric plates, Europe was finally separated from North America. The formation of the Atlantic basin began, and the volcanic island of Iceland was formed.

In the Cenozoic era, additional land expansion occurred in southern Europe in the Mediterranean fold belt. At this time, powerful young mountain systems are formed here - the Alps, Pyrenees, Stara Planina (Balkan Mountains), Carpathians, Crimean Mountains. In the depressions of the earth's crust, extensive lowlands arose, such as the Middle Danube and Lower Danube.

The relief of Europe has acquired its modern appearance in the last 20–30 million years. During this period, new tectonic movements occurred that significantly changed the land surface. The ancient and young mountain structures of Europe were raised and reached modern heights. At the same time, large areas of the earth's crust sank and formed sea basins and vast lowlands. Large mainland islands arose near the coasts: British, Spitsbergen, New Earth and others. Movements of the earth's crust were accompanied by volcanic activity, which has not stopped to this day in the Mediterranean and on the island of Iceland.

The highest (3340 m) and one of the most active volcanoes, Etna, is located on the island of Sicily. Italy is home to the only active volcano on mainland Europe - Vesuvius. The eruption of this volcano in 79 AD is known, as a result of which in three days the city of Pompeii and 16 thousand of its inhabitants were buried under a layer of volcanic ash 6–7 m thick.

The Stromboli volcano is extremely interesting. This is a volcano island near the Apennine Peninsula, which has been erupting continuously for three thousand years. The volcano releases volcanic bombs and hot gases approximately every 10–20 minutes. The fiery flashes of the volcano even help sailors navigate at night. Therefore, Stromboli is called the “lighthouse” of the Mediterranean Sea.

The earth's crust in the oldest part of Europe, on the East European Platform, slowly rises in some places, and sinks in others. As a result, separate uplands (Central Russian, Podolsk, Volyn, Volga) and lowlands (Black Sea, Caspian) clearly appeared in the relief of this part of Europe.

The general cooling of the Earth's climate led to the formation of a huge ice sheet in Northern Europe about 300 thousand years ago. The glacier either advanced (during the period when the temperature decreased) or retreated (when the temperature increased). During its maximum development, the glacier reached more than 1.5 km in thickness and almost completely covered British Isles and the plains adjacent to the North and Baltic Seas. In two tongues he descended along the East European Plain, reaching the latitude of Dnepropetrovsk.

During its movement, the glacier significantly changed the land surface. Like a gigantic bulldozer, it smoothed out hard rocks and removed the top layers of loose rocks. Polished rock fragments were carried from the centers of glaciation far to the south. Where the glacier melted, glacial sediments accumulated. Boulders, clay and sand formed huge ramparts, hills, and ridges that complicated the relief of the plains. Melt water carried out masses of sand, leveling the surface and forming flat sandy lowlands - woodlands.

The formation of the relief of Europe continues to this day. This is evidenced by earthquakes and volcanism occurring in some areas, as well as slow vertical movements of the earth's crust, which is confirmed by the deepening of river valleys and ravines.

Thus, Europe has an ancient and at the same time young relief. About 2/3 of its surface is on plains, concentrated mainly in the east. Low-lying areas alternate here with hilly uplands. Mountain ranges rarely exceed 3000 m. The highest point in Europe - Mont Blanc (4807 m) - is located in the French Alps.

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Foreign Europe has quite diverse resources of fuel, mineral and energy raw materials.

But it must be taken into account that almost all known mineral deposits on European territory have long been known and are on the verge of depletion. Therefore, this region needs resource imports more than others in the world.

Features of the relief of Europe

The relief of foreign Europe is quite diverse. In the east, low-lying plains prevail, which stretch in a wide strip from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea. In the south, hills dominate: Oshmyany, Minsk, Volyn, Crimean mountains.

The territory of the western part of Europe is highly dissected. Here, as you move from north to south, mountain ranges alternate with stripes of plains and lowlands. In the north are the Scandinavian Mountains. Further to the south: Scottish Highlands, high plains (Norland, Småland), lowlands (Central European, Greater Poland, North German, etc.). Then again there follows a mountainous strip: these are Sumava, Vosges and others, which alternate with the plains - Lesser Poland, Bohemian-Moravian.

In the south are the highest European mountain ranges - the Pyrenees, the Carpathians, the Alps, then again the plains. At the southernmost tips of foreign Europe there is another mountain belt, which consists of such massifs as the Rhodope Mountains, the Apennines, the Andalusian Mountains, the Dinara Mountains, and the Pindus Mountains.

This diversity determined the uneven occurrence of minerals. Reserves of iron, manganese, zinc, tin, copper, polymetallic ores, and bauxite are concentrated in the mountains and on the Scandinavian Peninsula. Significant deposits of brown and hard coal and potassium salts have been discovered in the lowlands. The coast of Europe, washed by the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, is an area where oil and gas fields occur. Especially a lot of fuel resources lie in the north. Development of the Arctic Ocean shelf still remains a priority.

Types of minerals

Despite the diversity of minerals in foreign Europe, the reserves of only some of them can be assessed as significant shares in the world reserve. In numbers this can be expressed as follows:

. hard and brown coal— 20% of the world reserve;

. zinc— 18%;

. lead— 14%%

. copper— 7%;

. oil, natural gas, iron ores, bauxite — 5-6%.

All other resources are presented in insignificant quantities.

By production coal Germany is in the lead (Ruhr, Saar, Aachen, Krefeld basins). It is followed by Poland (Upper Silesian Basin) and Great Britain (Welsh and Newcastle Basins).

The richest deposits brown coal also located in Germany (Halle-Leizipg and Lower Lausitz basins). There are rich deposits in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, and Hungary.

Every year, for example, 106 billion tons of coal are mined in Germany, and 45 billion tons in the UK.

Potassium salts It is mined on an industrial scale in Germany and France.

Uranium ores- in France (deposits: Limousin, Forez, Morvan, Chardonnay) and Spain (Monasterio, La Virgen, Esperanza).

Iron ores- in France (Lorraine Basin) and Sweden (Kiruna).

Copper- in Bulgaria (Medet, Asaral, Elatsite), Poland (Grodzetsky, Zlotoryysky, Presudetsky fields) and Finland (Vuonos, Outokumpu, Luikonlahti).

Oil- in Great Britain and Norway (North Sea), Denmark and the Netherlands. Currently, 21 oil and gas basins have been discovered, with a total area of ​​more than 2.8 million sq. km. There are 752 separate oil fields, 854 gas fields.

Gas- in Great Britain, Norway, the Netherlands. The largest deposit is Gronigen. More than 3.0 trillion are mined here annually. cubic meters

Bauxite- in France (Mediterranean province, La Ruquette), Greece (Parnas-Kiona, Amorgos), Croatia (Rudopole, Niksic), Hungary (Halimba, Oroslan, Gant).

Natural resources of foreign Europe

The peculiarities of Europe's resource supply can be explained by three factors:

1. This is a relatively small area, therefore, the volume of natural resources is small.

2. Europe is one of the most densely populated regions in the world, so resources are used very actively.

3. Europeans were the first in the world to follow the path of industrial development, which led not only to a significant depletion of all types of resources, but also to environmental deterioration.

Land and forest resources. The land area of ​​foreign Europe is small - about 173 million hectares, of which 30% is allocated for arable land, 18% for pastures, 33% is occupied by forests. The highest land use ratio is in the Netherlands, Romania, Poland and Denmark - 80%, in France, Germany - 50, but in Italy and Portugal - 14-16%.

There is approximately 0.3 hectares of forest per European, while average in the world - 1.2 hectares. Long-term use has led to natural forests there are practically none left; those that exist are planted forests. Every year about 400 million cubic meters of timber are mined in Europe, mainly on the Scandinavian Peninsula. The rest of the territory is dominated by protected forests, which are not subject to felling, and therefore are not resources.

Water resources. Natural water is a scarce resource in Europe. Most of the water is used by industrial enterprises and Agriculture. Long-term uncontrolled use of water resources has led to their depletion. To date, an extremely unfavorable environmental situation has developed - most European rivers and lakes are heavily polluted. In all countries of foreign Europe there is an acute shortage of fresh water.