Palace revolutions of the 18th century. The era of palace coups briefly

The death of Peter the Great marked the end of one era - the period of revival, transformations and reforms, and the beginning of another, which went down in history under the name "the era of palace coups", which is studied in History of Russia in the 7th grade. What happened during this period of time - 1725-1762 - is what we are talking about today.

Factors

Before speaking briefly about the era of palace coups in Russia, it is necessary to understand what the term “palace coup” means. This stable combination is understood as a forceful change of power in the state, which is carried out through a conspiracy by a group of courtiers and relies on the help of a privileged military force- guards. As a result, the current monarch is overthrown and a new heir from the ruling dynasty, a protégé of a group of conspirators, is installed on the throne. With the change of sovereign, the composition of the ruling elite also changes. During the period of coups d'etat in Russia - 37 years, six sovereigns were replaced on the Russian throne. The reasons for this were the following events:

• After Peter I, there were no direct heirs in the male line: son Alexei Petrovich died in prison, convicted of treason, and the youngest son Peter Petrovich died at an early age;
• Adopted by Peter I in 1722, the “Charter on the Succession to the Throne”: according to this document, the decision on the heir to the throne is made by the ruling monarch himself. Thus, various groups of supporters gathered around possible contenders for the throne - noble factions that were in confrontation;
• Peter the Great did not have time to draw up a will and indicate the name of the heir.

Thus, according to the definition of the Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky, the beginning of the era of palace coups in Russia is considered to be the date of death of Peter I - February 8 (January 28), 1725, and the end - 1762 - the year Catherine the Great came to power.

Rice. 1. Death of Peter the Great

Distinctive features

The palace coups of 1725-1762 had several characteristic common features:

• Favoritism : a group of favorites was formed around a possible contender for succession to the throne, whose goal was to be closer to power and have influence on the balance of power. In fact, the nobles close to the sovereign concentrated all power in their hands and completely controlled the sovereign (Menshikov, Biron, princes Dolgoruky);
• Reliance on the Guards Regiment : Guards regiments appeared under Peter I. In the Northern War, they became the main striking force of the Russian army, and then were used as the personal guard of the sovereign. In other words, their privileged position and proximity to the king played a decisive role in their “fate”: their support was used as the main striking force in palace coups;
• Frequent change of monarchs ;
• Appeal to the legacy of Peter the Great : each new heir laying claim to the throne demonstrated his intention to strictly follow the course of Peter I in foreign and domestic policy. However, what was promised often ran counter to current affairs and deviations from his program were observed.

Rice. 2. Portrait of Anna Ioannovna

Chronological table

The following chronological table presents all six Russian rulers, whose reign in history is associated with the era of palace coups. The first line answers the question of which ruler opened the gap in question in the political life of Russia in the 18th century - Catherine I. Other monarchs follow in chronological order. In addition, it is indicated with the help of what forces and court groups each of them came to power.

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Ruler	Reign dates	Coup participants	Coup prop	Main events
Catherine I (wife of the late Peter the Great)		Supreme Privy Council, power in which belonged to A.D. Menshikov	Guards regiments	Bypassing the main contenders: the grandson of Peter I - Peter Alekseevich and the crown princesses Anna and Elizabeth.
Peter II (grandson of Peter I from the eldest son of Alexei Petrovich)		Supreme Privy Council, Princes Dolgoruky and Andrei Osterman	Guards regiments	Catherine I She named the name of Peter II as a successor with the condition of his further marriage to Menshikov’s daughter. But Menshikov was deprived of all privileges and exiled to Berezov.
Anna Ioannovna (daughter of Peter I's elder brother Ivan)		Andrei Osterman, Biron and associates of the German nobles	Guards regiments	Bypassing the main contenders - the daughters of Peter the Great - Anna and Elizabeth.
Ivan Antonovich under the regency of Biron (son of Anna Leopoldovna - grandniece of Peter I)		Duke of Courland Biron, who was arrested a few weeks later. Anna Leopoldovna and her husband Anton Ulrich of Brunswick became regent for the young emperor.	German nobility	Bypassing Tsarevna Elizabeth
Elizaveta Petrovna (daughter of Peter I)		Doctor to the Crown Princess Lestok	Preobrazhensky Guards	As a result of the coup, Anna Leopoldovna and her husband were arrested and imprisoned in a monastery.
Peter III (grandson of Peter I, son of Anna Petrovna and Karl Friedrich of Holstein)				Became sovereign after the death of Elizabeth Petrovna according to her will
Catherine II (wife of Peter III)		Guardsmen brothers Orlov, P.N. Panin, Princess E. Dashkova, Kirill Razumovsky	Guards regiments: Semenovsky, Preobrazhensky and Horse Guards	As a result of the coup, Pyotr Fedorovich abdicated the throne, was arrested and soon died of a violent death

Some historians believe that the era of palace coups does not end with the arrival of Catherine II. They name other dates - 1725-1801, related to the administration of the state of Alexander I.

Rice. 3. Catherine the Great

The era of palace coups led to the fact that noble privileges expanded significantly.

What have we learned?

According to the new decree of Peter I on changes in the order of succession to the throne, the person entitled to inherit the royal throne in Russia was indicated as the current monarch. This document did not contribute to the establishment of order and stability in the state, but on the contrary, it led to an era of palace coups that lasted 37 years. The activities of six monarchs date back to this period.

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State Historical Museum. Hall 23. The era of palace coups, continued. Previous report in the article.

According to the figurative expression of V.O. Klyuchevsky, the period of Russian history after the death of Peter I until the accession of Empress Catherine II was called the “era of palace coups.” In 37 years, six rulers have replaced the Russian throne. After Peter I, his second wife, Catherine I, ruled. After her death, the grandson of Peter I, Peter II, ascended the throne. He was replaced by the niece of the first emperor, Anna Ioannovna, followed by Anna Ioannovna’s great-nephew Ioann Antonovich. Then “Petrov’s daughter”, Elizaveta Petrovna, reigned and was succeeded by Peter I’s grandson, Peter III. Finally, in 1762, Catherine II ascended the throne.

On the right side of the hall there is a row of portraits representing a succession of Russian emperors and their favorites of the second quarter of the 18th century.

The gallery opens with a portrait of Catherine the First.


Next to her is His Serene Highness Prince Alexander Danilovich Menshikov.




Next is a portrait of the young Emperor Peter II.




On the wall opposite the window, after Osterman and Biron, we will see a portrait of the niece of Peter I, Empress Anna Ioannovna.


In conclusion, let us pay attention to the portrait of Peter’s daughter, Empress Elizabeth Petrovna.

Showcases 1 – 3. The era of palace coups. Fight for the throne

Catherine I

(Showcase 1, to the right of the entrance to the hall).

After the death of Peter I, with the support of Menshikov and the guard, Catherine I ascends the throne. She rules for two years from 1725 until her death in 1727. Her kingdom was not marked by anything special. The first showcase features a portrait of the empress with her family tree.

The era of palace coups. A.D. Menshikov

(Showcase 2).


In 1727, with the support of the old aristocratic families, Peter II ascended the throne. He was a boy, and for three years there was a struggle for influence on the young sovereign. In this struggle, A.D. Menshikov is defeated, he is sent into exile in Berezov, deprived of all ranks, orders and wealth. The “Sign” icon is a relic. Alexander Danilovich Menshikov blessed his son with this icon.


This is the only surviving item associated with the name of Menshikov in Moscow. (Some items are exhibited in St. Petersburg). The Most Serene Prince was buried on the river bank; the grave was washed away during a flood.

The era of palace coups. Peter II

Among the favorites at the court of Peter II, the main place is occupied by the princes Dolgoruky. It is believed that Ivan Dolgoruky began to introduce the young emperor to entertainment establishments too early. Obviously, a 15-year-old boy does not want to study, but wants to have fun, so Dolgoruky found himself in favor. Young Pyotr Alekseevich died unexpectedly, having contracted smallpox. In February, during the blessing of water, he went to the deforested Jordan in a light uniform, without warm clothes. He caught a cold, caught smallpox and “burned out” within two weeks, on the eve of his wedding.

His unexpected death put Russia in a strange difficult position - who will rule? There are no direct descendants in the male line from the Romanov dynasty. There are only women's ones left. Then they turned to the line of Peter I’s brother, Tsar Ivan Alekseevich.

The era of palace coups. Anna Ioannovna. The history of the calling to the kingdom

(Showcase 3).

Peter's co-ruler, Ivan, had two daughters - Catherine and Anna. Catherine was married to the Duke of Mecklenburg. At first, as a married European lady, they wanted to invite Ekaterina Ioannovna. But then they remembered that her husband, the Duke of Mecklenburg, had a habit of interfering in all matters, when asked and not asked. Fearing that the entire Duchy of Mecklenburg would come to Russia with Catherine, they did not invite her. We turned to Ivan Alekseevich’s second daughter, Dowager Duchess Anna Ioannovna. She lived in distant Courland (part of modern Latvia).

Her fate was sad. Peter married his niece to the Duke of Courland. But on the way to the duchy, the husband died from heavy drunkenness. Anna Ioannovna left St. Petersburg a relatively happy young wife. She arrived in Courland already as a widow. Her uncle, Peter I, did not allow her to return to Russia and she spent over 15 years in very cramped circumstances. She didn’t even have enough money to lead a decent life. The local nobility did not like the Russian duchess and she was a hostage in political games.

But in 1730, fate brought her from a poor state to the Russian throne. Anna Ioannovna was invited to Russia as empress. But with reservations, that is, conditions, the so-called “conditions”, in which the nobility limited its rights. For the first time in Russian history, it was decided not just to invite, but to limit the rights of the autocrat to the throne.

The era of palace coups. Conditions

The conspiracy was led by Dmitry Mikhailovich Golitsyn and the Supreme Privy Council. D.M. Golitsyn is an outstanding figure in Russian history. A man of great intelligence and education, a relative of Vasily Vasilyevich Golitsyn - a reformer, adviser to Sofia Alekseevna. They secretly came up with famous conditions that soon became known to many. The Moscow nobility intervened in the matter. When the Moscow nobles heard that the empress was being invited and her rights to the throne were being limited, they were indignant. The nobles were divided into two parties - one believed that it was necessary to preserve the monarchy in its original form. Others (also for the first time in Russian history) said - okay, the empress’s rights were limited, but they did not consult with us. We also want to put forward our conditions. Thus, for the first time in history, the Russian nobility is creating its own projects to limit power.

Several air conditioning projects have been created. Studying the history of conditions is like reading a detective novel - everyone tried to send their messenger to Mitava, get ahead of their opponent, tell Anna Ioannovna to sign this and not that, etc.

Anna Ioannovna came to Moscow, stopped near Moscow in the village of Tainitsky and began to realize that she had support. There are people at court who stand for her full rights! The newly-crowned empress had absolutely no intention of fulfilling any conditions. She decided to act in a proven way and bribed the guard. Not so much with money, but with pity - she built shelves, said that the widow was being insulted, that she was not given all her rights, and offered a glass of vodka with a silver ruble. The Guard supported her and the matter ended with Anna Ioannovna tearing up all her standards and reigning as a full-fledged empress.
In showcase 4 you can display a cuirass from 1730 (the year of Anna’s accession to the throne) with the empress’s monogram.



One of the swords bears the inscription “Vivat, Anna.”

At the exhibition (display case 3) we see a document - Anna Ioannovna’s manifesto on the abolition of the Privy Council and the restoration of the Governing Senate. That is, the monarchy, as before in Russia, remained absolute.

The era of palace coups. John Antonovich - heir to the throne

(Showcase 6)


Another interesting story is connected with the era of palace coups - the story of Ivan Antonovich. Anna Ioannovna died in 1740. Since she did not have the right to remarry, she did not have children. But an heir was needed. The Empress summoned her niece, Anna Leopoldovna, the daughter of Catherine Ivanovna’s sister, and married her to Anton Ulrich of Brunswick. (The portrait of Anna Leopoldovna is on the left above showcase 6).


From this marriage a boy was born, John Antonovich. The Empress declared this boy, her great-nephew, heir to the throne.

Showcase 6 (in the center of the right wall)

When Anna died, the heir was only a few months old. In the collection of the State Historical Museum there is a unique image of Ivan Antonovich, who lies in a cradle, around him are muses, nymphs, geniuses, a solemn light overshadows him, on the blanket is the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called, the highest Russian order.

The boys of the royal family received this order immediately after birth.

The era of palace coups. Ivan Antonovich - the fate of the deposed emperor

A few months later, a new palace coup changed the fate of the infant emperor. Elizaveta Petrovna came to power. For the first three years, the boy lived in exile with his parents in Kholmogory. Then he was taken from his parents and sent to the Shlisselburg fortress. He sat there for 21 years in complete isolation with the windows boarded up. Nobody taught him science. It is believed that one of the commandants, out of pity, taught him to read so that he could read the Gospel and the Holy Scriptures - the only books that the unfortunate Ivan Antonovich was allowed to have. They even took him to the bathhouse at night.

All items associated with his name and short reign were destroyed, including the melting down of coins with his image. Documents with his names and portraits were destroyed everywhere. The museum truly houses a unique image. Only three or four of these have survived. Also on display are documents from his mother, coins, and a seal.

By 1764, everyone had forgotten about Ivan Antonovich, there were only rumors about a mysterious prisoner. One of the guards, Lieutenant Vasily Mirovich, decided to release him. There is a version that this was a provocation initiated by Catherine II in order to get rid of her rival for the throne. But while Mirovich and a small detachment stormed the fortress, the guards killed the prisoner. They had a special order to liquidate the disgraced ruler at the slightest attempt at liberation.

The era of palace coups. Elizaveta Petrovna

According to the canons of the 18th century, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna had no rights to the throne. She was born before her parents' official marriage, and besides, her mother was not of royal descent. Such “baggage” kept “Petrova’s daughter” from claiming the throne for quite a long time.

The exhibition presents a ceremonial portrait of Elizabeth Petrovna.



Many such portraits were painted, since a portrait of the emperor had to be in every public place. Sometimes there was even a throne under the portrait, that is, the emperor seemed to be invisibly present in official places. Elizabeth is depicted in ceremonial court dress. On the shoulders is a mantle, the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called.

Seven Years' War. Showcases 10 and 11

Showcases 10 and 11. State Historical Museum. Hall 23

The reign of Elizaveta Petrovna was of particular importance in the history of Russia in the mid-18th century. Petrov’s daughter continued her father’s reforms, and it was under her that Russia’s international authority strengthened, especially thanks to its participation in the Seven Years’ War against the Prussian king Frederick the Great.

The Seven Years' War had a pan-European significance; the whole of Europe watched its progress. The artifacts are located in showcase 10, under the portrait of Elizaveta Petrovna.


In showcase 10 there is a snuff box with an image of Frederick and battle scenes.


The Prussian king Frederick is a talented commander. Snuff box with a portrait of Elizaveta Petrovna.


Snuff boxes with portraits indicate the popularity and interest in Europe in the personalities of Elizabeth Petrovna and Frederick the Great - the main forces opposing each other in the Seven Years' War.

Showcase 11 in the State Historical Museum collection is dedicated to the Seven Years' War with Prussia, where Russia initially won victories.


The exhibition presents unique monuments - coins that are both German and Russian coins. (On one side there is a German thaler, on the other side there is a Russian ruble).


Russian coins were minted for circulation in Prussia. From 1759 to 1761, East Prussia was annexed to Russia, the population took an oath of allegiance to Elizabeth Petrovna, and such money was in circulation.

The era of palace coups. Peter III

The last overthrown emperor was the grandson of Peter I and Catherine I, the son of their daughter Anna Petrovna, the nephew of the reigning Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, Pyotr Fedorovich. He was orphaned very early and it is believed that his early orphanhood played a tragic role in his fate - no one was involved in his upbringing, he was left in the care of lackeys who early taught him to drink. They brought him to Russia under Elizaveta Petrovna as the heir to the throne. But at the Russian court, no one was particularly happy to see him either; Pyotr Fedorovich did not have the best reputation.

It was Peter III who adopted the manifesto on the freedom of the nobility. From now on, the first free class appeared in Russia - the nobility. They had the right to choose the type of service or not to serve at all, that is, to lead the life they saw fit.

Peter III did not like the Russian army. He moved the Russian officers away from himself and brought the Holstein nobles and their guard closer. This was one of the reasons that led to the conspiracy against him. But the main reason was the betrayal of Peter III towards the Russian Empire. He made peace with Prussia and gave Prussia all the conquests that Russia made during the Seven Years' War. The exhibition includes a symbolic painting of Peter III reconciling with Frederick the Great (window 11).


A curious snuff box depicting three European monarchs (display case 11).




Dislike for Peter III provoked a conspiracy, as a result of which a woman came to power, the wife of Peter Fedorovich, who had no rights to the throne at all - Catherine II. The exposition of other halls tells about her reign.

Previously, a portrait of Peter III hung on the narrow wall between the arches of the exit to the 24th hall. Now there is a battle scene hanging here - a conclusion to the capture of the Ochakov fortress.

Masquerade sleigh

A unique item in the hall’s collection is a masquerade sleigh. In the 18th century, a tradition appeared to hold masquerades, carnivals, and processions. Similar sleighs were also used during holidays. The sleigh was secured to the train (there are special loops on the sides of the sleigh for securing them to the train). Dressed up characters sat in the sleigh. A sleigh made in Austria is a characteristic item of the era.

Showcase 13. Trumpets for horn orchestra

The exhibition includes a rare set musical instruments, these are trumpets for a horn orchestra. Each trumpet played only one note at a certain pitch. It was impossible to play anything else on it, so to perform even a simple melody, a whole orchestra and several musicians were needed.
The museum managed to collect a unique collection of horns - to early XIX centuries they disappeared, such an orchestra was expensive and it was ruinous to maintain it.

Most of the horns were melted down, but they managed to assemble a collection. The music played sounded like an organ.
There is an engraving in the window - an illustration of this kind of orchestra.

Showcase 15. M.V. Lomonosov

In the partition between the windows there is a portrait of M.V. Lomonosov, the first Russian scientist, and his personal belongings.





An interesting bottle for experiments with oil. This alembic is made from quarters, a special type of travel container designed for transporting and storing liquids. The cube was used to conduct experiments on the distillation of liquids in the first Russian chemical laboratory created by Lomonosov.


Next to it is a small icon of the Savior, made by Lomonosov himself. The image was made of glass by order of Countess Shuvalova. Many clearly see in the image of the Savior a portrait of Peter I himself.


Here are books, documents that represent the breadth of M.V. Lomonosov’s creativity - his poems, historical works, scientific works and a fireworks program - Lomonosov developed a program for the holidays.

In the display case there is an engraving of fireworks. Fireworks were a whole fiery performance, which was conceived according to a certain system and a script was written, as for a theatrical performance.

“The era of palace coups” (formulation by V.O. Klyuchevsky) is usually called the stage of national history that began after the death of Peter I and ended with the coming to power of Catherine II.

Prerequisites for the era of palace coups

1. Decree on succession to the throne of 1722., abolishing the old order of succession, allowed the emperor to appoint his heir himself. This, on the one hand, became a manifestation absolutism, and on the other hand, it made it possible to ignore the pattern of transfer of the throne.

2. Schism under Peter ruling elite to high-born aristocracy and the "new nobility". Their confrontation became fertile ground for internal political struggle. Each group has its own candidate for the throne.

3. Overexertion during the years of Peter the Great's reforms (destruction of traditions, violent methods of reform) - a condition for political instability.

4. Alienation of broad layers population from politics, their passivity is fertile ground for palace intrigues and coups.

Catherine I (1725-1727)

During the era of palace coups, 6 monarchs were replaced, 2 of them were removed by force and subsequently killed.

Under the "Bironovschina" They usually understand the dominance of foreigners in governing the country. However, the question of the special dominance of foreigners in the 1730s. controversial, since these were mostly people who had gained favor under Peter I.

Under Anna Ioannovna, the process of expanding noble privileges began:

Land distribution resumed;

In 1731, Peter the Great's decree on single inheritance was repealed

Decree on unified inheritance- decree of Peter I of March 23, 1714. According to this decree, estates were equated to estates and formed an estate. Real estate could only be inherited by one of the sons, and in their absence, by the daughter. It was canceled by Empress Anna Ioannovna.

The term of noble service is limited to 25 years;

Obtaining an officer rank has been made easier: a cadet corps has been created, upon completion of which an officer rank is given; It was allowed to enroll noble children in the service, which made it possible to receive a rank “for length of service” when growing up.

Anna Ioannovna is her heir appointed her great-nephew (son of her niece - Anna Leopoldovna and Anton of Brunswick) Ivan Antonovich.

Ivan VI (1740-1741)

Ivan Antonovich was declared emperor at the age of 2 months during the regency of Biron. However, the latter was unable to retain power in his hands.

A month later, a coup was carried out under the leadership of Field Marshal Minikha. Biron is arrested and exiled. His mother Anna Leopoldovna became the regent under Ivan Antonovich, and Osterman took the leading position in politics.

The events that took place in 1740-1741 clearly demonstrated the dominance of foreigners in governing the country, which was contrary to the interests of the Russian nobility and the state.

Elizabeth I (1741-1761)

November 25, 1741. With the help of the Guard (Preobrazhensky Regiment), another coup took place. Ivan VI and his parents were arrested, and Peter I's daughter Elizabeth I ascended the throne.

How statesman Elizabeth I was no different from her predecessors. She devoted most of her time to entertainment. Governance of the state was entrusted to new favorites - Razumovsky, Shuvalov, Vorontsov.

Elizabeth proclaimed the goal of her reign to be a return to her father's order. The Cabinet of Ministers was abolished and the Senate was restored.

In addition, to important events Elizabeth's reign includes:

1753 - abolition of internal customs;

1755 - opening of Moscow University.

During the reign of Elizabeth, the death penalty was practically not used.

The old one has been preserved class politics: expansion of the rights and privileges of the nobility:

In 1746, the right to own serfs was reserved only for nobles;

In 1754, distillation was declared a monopoly of the nobility;

In 1760, landowners received the right to exile peasants to Siberia for hard labor.

After the death of Elizabeth I(December 1761) the throne was taken by her nephew (the son of Peter I’s daughter Anna) Karl Peter Ulrich, who received the name Peter Fedorovich after converting to Orthodoxy.

Peter III (1761-1762)

Peter III born and raised in German lands (his father is the Duke of Holstein).

His short reign I was amazed by the abundance of decrees (192 in six months). The most important of them is the “Manifesto on the granting of freedom and liberty to the Russian nobility” (developed under Elizabeth): nobles were exempted from compulsory service, they were allowed to travel abroad and enter foreign service.

Under Peter III, a decree was adopted on the secularization of church lands, the persecution of Old Believers was stopped, and a decree was being prepared on the equalization of all religions. These measures, which seem progressive today, are mid-17th century I century were perceived as an insult to Orthodoxy.

At the same time, Peter behaved disrespectfully towards the Russian guard and army (a shameful end to the Seven Years' War).

Seven Years' War- war of 1756-1763 between Austria, France, Russia, Spain, Saxony, Sweden, on the one hand, and Prussia, Great Britain (in union with Hanover) and Portugal, on the other. Caused by the intensification of the Anglo-French struggle for colonies and the clash of Prussian policies with the interests of Austria, France and Russia. In 1761, Prussia was on the verge of disaster, but the new Russian Tsar Peter III entered into an alliance with her in 1762. According to the Treaty of Hubertusburg in 1763 with Austria and Saxony, Prussia secured Silesia. According to the Paris Peace Treaty of 1763, Canada and the East were transferred to Great Britain from France. Louisiana, most of the French possessions in India. The main result of the Seven Years' War was the victory of Great Britain over France in the struggle for colonial and trade primacy.

By the summer of 1762 A conspiracy developed against Peter III among the guards (led by Grigory and Alexey Orlov). On June 28, when Peter III was not in the capital, his wife Catherine was proclaimed empress.

Features of the era of palace coups:

1. Weak, uninitiative monarchs (“women and children”).

2. Favoritism(Menshikov, Biron, Shuvalov).

Favoritism(from Latin favor - favor) - a phenomenon associated with the presence of persons enjoying the favor of the ruler, an influential person, receiving various privileges from him and, in turn, influencing him.

3. Absence of any deep state reforms, reorganization of central government bodies “under” a specific monarch.

4. Increased influence of foreigners on politics.

5. Active role of the guard.

3. “Enlightened absolutism” of Catherine II (1762-1796).

The essence of the policy of enlightened absolutism

Education- ideological movement of the 17th - mid-19th centuries. It originated in England and became most widespread in France ( D. Diderot, C. Montesquieu, J.-J. Rousseau).

Enlightenment philosophers formulated theory of "natural rights".

The theory of "natural rights". Enlightenment philosophers believed that all people were naturally free and had equal rights. However, humanity in its development violated the natural laws of life, which led to oppression and injustice. It is possible to return to justice only by enlightening the people, and an enlightened society will again establish fair laws (one of the ways is the activity of enlightened monarchs).

The ideas of enlightenment became widespread in Europe and had a direct impact on the public policy of many countries.

In a number of European countries in the 18th century. The absolute monarchy was criticized from the standpoint of enlightenment (natural rights, freedom, civil equality). In France, criticism grew into revolution.

In other countries (Russia, Austria) far-sighted monarchs, trying to strengthen the foundations of an absolute monarchy, themselves eliminated the most outdated foundations of the state system, while relying on some ideas of enlightenment.

Objectives of the policy of enlightened absolutism in Russia:

1) strengthening the autocracy through modernization and improvement of the state administration system;

2) mitigation of social tension;

3) dissemination of knowledge, European forms of culture and education;

Thus, The essence of the policy of enlightened absolutism is to, without essentially changing the state forms of the absolute monarchy, carry out reforms from above in the economic, political, and cultural fields and thus eliminate the most outdated phenomena of the feudal order.

The main feature of Russian education should be recognized that, if in Europe it will contribute to the elimination of absolutism, then in Russia, on the contrary, it will help strengthen the power of the monarch.

34-year reign of Catherine II It is customary to divide it into two stages: before and after the Pugachev uprising.

The policy of Catherine II in 1762-1773.

At the first stage of her reign, Catherine II was especially passionate about the ideas of enlightenment.

At the beginning of the reign the empress did not feel like a sovereign ruler. This was facilitated by the circumstances of the accession to the throne (coup, illegitimacy); potential competition from the son of Pavel and Ivan Antonovich. A sign of Catherine’s lack of independence in the first years of her reign was the creation of the imperial council - the central legislative institution of Russia in 1762-1769.

Nevertheless, already in September 1762, Catherine II was solemnly crowned. The Imperial Council did not become an influential body. As for the “competitors,” Paul kept his distance from the throne the entire time his mother was on the throne; Ivan Antonovich was killed in 1764 under circumstances that are not fully clarified.

During the first stage of her reign, Catherine paid special attention to lawmaking. One of the first reforms was the division of the Senate into 6 departments

Catherine II continued, following Peter I, carrying out measures to unify management in the territory Russian Empire: liquidated in 1764 hetmanate in Ukraine.

Hetmanate(hetman rule) - a system of government in Ukraine in the mid-17th - mid-18th centuries. The hetman was elected at the Cossack Rada from persons nominated in advance by the foreman, and then approved by the tsarist government. The hetman had the right to lead the local militia. He headed the senior administration, approved the decisions of the General Court, and signed the generals. The Hetman's Board was liquidated in 1764, and its functions were transferred to the Little Russian Collegium.

Ekaterina completes a long process of subordination of the church to the state. If Peter I put an end to the administrative independence of the church, then Catherine made the church economically dependent on the state. To this end, in 1764 the secularization of church land ownership was carried out.

Central event The first decade of Catherine's reign was the convening of the Legislative Commission.

The goal is to develop a new set of laws, since the last time the codification of laws was carried out was in 1649. Deputies were chosen to work on the commission - representatives of different strata of society. However, about half of the deputies were persons of noble origin.

Before the start of the commission’s work, Catherine developed an “Order” addressed to the deputies, which is the system of views of Catherine II.

On the one side, it contains ideas in the spirit of enlightenment (refusal of torture; limitation of the use of the death penalty; the idea of ​​​​separation of the judiciary from the executive).

On the other side- departure from the ideas of enlightenment (rejection of the theory of “natural rights”, limitation of rights by class; autocracy is the only possible form government in Russia).

Stacked commission will not cope with its task and will be disbanded under the conditions of the Russian-Turkish war that began in 1768. However, her work was not in vain: during the functioning of the commission, the authorities gained an understanding of the needs of the classes, which will partly be used in the second stage of government.

The policy of Catherine II in 1775-1796.

Pugachev uprising demonstrated the ineffectiveness of local authorities and the weakness of provincial government (the rebels managed to keep entire provinces under their control for months).

It was at this stage that Catherine II initiated the most important transformations of the state machine. These include provincial and judicial reforms.

Provincial reform (1775)

The Russian Empire was divided into 50 provinces (based on the principle of approximately equal numbers of subjects).

The intermediate link in the administrative-territorial division - the province - was eliminated.

Unification of provincial administration: headed by the governor, with him - provincial government; in each province a treasury chamber was created, headed by a vice-governor. In addition, public charity orders were organized in Russian provinces to resolve a number of social issues.

Judicial reform (1775) introduced its own court for each class, and also provided for the introduction of the principle of election of judges - an attempt to separate the judicial power from the administrative power.

Besides, it is at the second stage that Catherine’s social policy is concretized. It is reflected in documents such as « Charter to the nobility" and "Charter to the cities."

In the "Charter of Complaint to the Nobility", published on April 21, 1785, the rights of the nobility were finally secured. The diploma confirmed the privileges given to the nobility earlier: freedom from corporal punishment, capitation tax, compulsory service, the right of unlimited ownership of estates and land with its subsoil, the right to trade and industrial activities. Deprivation of noble dignity could be carried out only by decision of the Senate with the highest approval. The estates of convicted nobles were not subject to confiscation. The nobility was now called "noble".

Powers have been expanded noble class institutions. The nobility received class self-government: noble assemblies headed by provincial and district leaders. Noble assemblies could make representations to the authorities about their needs. It is no coincidence that the reign of Catherine II is often called the “golden age of the Russian nobility.”

Simultaneously with the “Charter of Grant to the Nobility” the “Charter of Grant to the Cities” was published. She confirmed the previously granted exemption from the poll tax and conscription duty to the rich merchants. Famous citizens and merchants of the first two guilds were exempt from corporal punishment and some townsman duties.

Urban population(except for the peasants living in the city) was divided into six categories that made up the “city society”. It elected the mayor, members of the magistrate and members of the “general city council”. The “General City Duma” elected a “six-voice Duma” - an executive governing body consisting of representatives of all categories of citizens. The charter granted to cities for the first time united disparate groups of “urban inhabitants” into a single community.

Policy towards the peasantry.

The flip side of the expansion of noble privileges would be the tightening of forms of serfdom: the decree of 1763 provided for the payment by the peasants themselves of the costs associated with the suppression of their protests; a decree of 1765 allowed landowners to send peasants to hard labor by counting these peasants as recruits; a decree of 1767 prohibited peasants from filing complaints against their landowners with the empress.

Results of the reign of Catherine II:

1. Strengthening absolutism.

2. Europeanization of Russia.

3. Cultural upsurge due to state care for science, education, and art.

BUT: social tension in society has not been resolved (Pugachev uprising, widening gap between privileged and unprivileged sections of the population).

Control questions:

1. Features of the reforms of Peter I?

2. New authorities under Peter I?

3. Why was the era of “palace coups” called the “era of temporary workers”?

4. Why was the policy of Catherine II called the “era of enlightened absolutism”?

Romanovs - female dynasty

The royal dynasty of the Romanovs in the 17th century was a predominantly female dynasty. The number of children was large: the first Romanov, Mikhail Fedorovich, had 10 children, his son Alexei Mikhailovich - 16. At the same time, infant mortality took up a significant percentage of the number of births, although it decreased over time. But most importantly, more girls were born than boys (by the way, there was an interesting pattern in the Romanov family - the birth of four girls in a row in one family).

Equestrian portrait of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich.
1650-1699 Google Cultural Institute

Men had a lower average life expectancy than women. Thus, of the Romanov tsars in the 17th century, none exceeded the 50-year mark: Mikhail Fedorovich lived 49 years, Alexey Mikhailovich - 46, Fyodor Alekseevich did not live to see 21 years, Ivan Alekseevich lived 29 years. By today's standards, all the tsars of the Romanov dynasty in the 17th century were relatively young or mature, but by no means old people. The life expectancy of princesses ranges between 42 (Tsarevna Natalya Alekseevna) and 70 (Tsarevna Tatyana Mikhailovna) years. However, only two princesses did not live to be 50 years old - Natalya Alekseevna and Sofya Alekseevna (lived 46 years), while the majority crossed the 50-year mark. Physically, the women of the Romanov family were, apparently, much stronger than the men.

Despite the presence large number young women, the Romanov dynasty was in absolute international genealogical isolation. An insurmountable obstacle stood in the way of dynastic marriages with foreign ruling families. A Russian tsar (or prince) could marry a person of lower status (a “simple” noblewoman), thereby elevating her. The princess could not marry a person below her in status - therefore, only an equal marriage was possible. In this case, the groom had to be Orthodox (and there were almost no other Orthodox kingdoms besides Russia) or convert to Orthodoxy before marriage and remain in Russia.

Mikhail Fedorovich attempted to marry his eldest daughter Irina to the illegitimate son of the Danish king, Duke Voldemar, but the question of the groom’s conversion to Orthodoxy turned out to be the stumbling block over which all plans were dashed. This unsuccessful attempt, apparently, discouraged the Romanovs from looking for other suitors for their princesses - be that as it may, until 1710, not a single princess from the Romanov family ever got married, and most of them lived until their death in the royal mansion unmarried virgins (the opinion that they took monastic tonsure en masse does not correspond to reality; in fact, such cases were isolated).

Tree of the Moscow State (Praise to Our Lady of Vladimir). Icon of Simon Ushakov. 1668 Google Cultural Institute

Safe marriages to noblewomen

Only once, the very first, the Romanovs tried to become related to the Russian aristocracy - the princes Dolgorukovs, but this first marriage of Mikhail Fedorovich was very short-lived. Subsequently, the Romanovs became related to the “ordinary”, not very noble nobility, which existed far from palace intrigues.

The choice of a bride from, as they say, “broad layers of the noble masses” probably symbolized the connection of the royal family with their subjects, with the then “society” from which the Russian queens came. In the 17th century, the Romanovs became related to the nobles Streshnevs, Miloslavskys, Naryshkins, Grushetskys, Apraksins, Saltykovs and Lopukhins. Subsequently, many relatives of the queens, even very distant ones, such as, for example, Pyotr Andreevich Tolstoy Petr Andreevich Tolstoy(1645-1729) - associate of Peter the Great, statesman and diplomat, active privy councilor. or Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev(1686-1750) - Russian historian, geographer, economist and statesman; author of "Russian History". Founder of Yekaterinburg, Perm and other cities., took important places in the state life of the country. In other words, the matrimonial policy of the royal dynasty remained deeply unique.

How Peter I inherited the throne

Tsarina Natalya Kirillovna. Painting by Peter Nikitin. Late 17th century Wikimedia Commons

After the death of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich, the struggle between two branches of the Romanov family for the throne was clearly revealed. The eldest branch represented the descendants of Alexei Mikhailovich from his first marriage, with Tsarina Maria Ilyinichna (Miloslavskaya), the youngest - the descendants from his second marriage, with Tsarina Natalya Kirillovna (Naryshkina). Since the only man in the senior branch, Tsarevich Ivan Alekseevich, was of little capacity, and the only man in the younger branch, Tsarevich Pyotr Alekseevich, reached only ten years of age, relatively young women of the royal family came to the forefront of political life - Tsarevna Sofya Alekseevna, who was 24 years old at that time, and her stepmother Tsarina Natalya Kirillovna, at the age of 30 .

As you know, victory in the events of 1682 remained with Princess Sophia, who actually became the real ruler under two kings - Ivan and Peter. The situation of two kingdoms was unique to Muscovite Rus', although it had some basis in the previous Rurik tradition and the more distant dynastic tradition of Byzantium. In 1689, young Peter Alekseevich was able to remove Princess Sophia from power, and after the death of his brother Ivan in 1696, he remained the sole sovereign of Russia. Thus began a new era in the history of the country and in the history of the House of Romanov.

Princess Sofya Alekseevna. 1680s Bridgeman Images/Fotodom

The 18th century saw the royal dynasty in the following composition: two men (Tsar Peter Alekseevich and his ten-year-old son and heir Alexei Petrovich) and fourteen (!) women - three queens, two of them widows (Marfa Matveevna, the widow of Fyodor Alekseevich, and Praskovya Fedorovna, the widow of Ivan Alekseevich) and one who was “out of work” and tonsured a nun (Peter’s first wife, Evdokia Fedorovna) and eleven princesses - the seven sisters of the Tsar (six half-blooded, including Sofya Alekseevna, imprisoned in a monastery, and one relative; almost all of them left from the usual childbearing age for that time), one aunt of the tsar (Tatyana Mikhailovna, the last of the children of Mikhail Fedorovich) and three nieces of the tsar (daughters of Ivan Alekseevich and Praskovya Fedorovna). Accordingly, only in relation to the last three women could one hope for marriage and continuation of offspring. Due to this situation, the royal family found itself under a certain threat. Peter I made fundamental changes in dynastic politics and changed the dynastic situation itself.

An extraordinary phenomenon was the actual divorce of the tsar and his second marriage to a rootless native of Livonia, Marta Skavronskaya, who in Orthodoxy received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna. The marriage took place in 1712, and by that time the couple had two premarital daughters (who survived among other children who died in infancy) - Anna (born in 1708) and Elizabeth (born in 1709). They became “married”, which, however, did not remove the question of the legality of their origin. Subsequently, Peter and Catherine had several more children, but they all died in infancy or childhood. By the end of the reign of Peter I, there was no hope left for continuation of the family line through the male line from the second marriage of the tsar (emperor).

Peter I

Three dynastic marriages, breakthrough to the West

Portrait of the family of Peter I. Miniature on enamel by Gregory of Musiki. 1716-1717 Wikimedia Commons

A breakthrough phenomenon was the marriage with representatives of foreign ruling dynasties. This turned out to be possible thanks to a tolerant attitude towards the issue of religion - at first it was not even necessary for one of the spouses to convert to the faith of the other. A breakthrough into Europe also meant recognition of the royal dynasty as a European dynasty, and this could not have happened without appropriate matrimonial unions.

The first foreign marriage among the Romanovs was the marriage of Princess Anna Ioannovna (niece of Peter I and the future Russian Empress) with the Duke of Courland Friedrich Wilhelm, concluded in 1710. He had a great geopolitical significance, since Courland was a prominent Baltic state that played a significant role in this region. The borders of Russia came into direct contact with the borders of Courland after the annexation of Livonia as a result of the Northern War. Despite the fact that the Duke died two and a half months after the wedding, Anna, remaining the Dowager Duchess of Courland, at the behest of Peter, went to her new homeland, where she lived for almost twenty years (let us note that she remained Orthodox).

Ceremonial portrait of Princess Sophia Charlotte of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. 1710-1715 Wikimedia Commons

The second marriage, concluded under Peter, had even greater dynastic significance. In 1711, Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, who was the heir to the throne, married in Europe Charlotte Christina Sophia, Duchess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (neither the bride nor the groom changed their religion). The most significant aspect of this marriage was that the bride’s sister, Elizabeth Christina, was the wife of the Austrian Prince Charles, who in the same 1711 became Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation under the name Charles VI (it was to his brother-in-law that Alexey Petrovich later fled) .

The Holy Roman Empire was the leading and highest status state of the then European world. The twinning with its rulers (even through property) placed Russia in the rank of leading European countries and strengthened its status in the international arena. The heir to the Russian throne became the brother-in-law of the Holy Roman Emperor, and the future sovereigns found themselves in direct kinship (this was actually the case - Peter II was the cousin of the future Empress Maria Theresa; however, they ruled in different time and Peter left no offspring). So, thanks to the marriage of Tsarevich Alexei, the Russian dynasty became related to the Habsburgs.

The third dynastic marriage took place in 1716: Peter's niece Ekaterina Ivanovna married Karl Leopold, Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. The territory of this state occupied the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, and this union further strengthened Russia’s position in the Baltic region. Finally, after the death of Peter, the previously prepared marriage of the Tsar’s eldest daughter Anna Petrovna and the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp Karl Friedrich was concluded. Holstein was the northernmost German duchy, bordering the Kingdom of Denmark and also facing the Baltic Sea. However important point was that Karl Friedrich on his mother’s side was the nephew of the Swedish king Charles XII, which means that his descendants could lay claim to the Swedish throne. And so it happened: the son born to Anna Petrovna, Karl Peter, named after Charles XII and Peter the Great, was for some time considered the heir to the Swedish throne. Thus, under a favorable set of circumstances, the Swedish throne could be occupied by the descendants of Peter I, that is, representatives of the Romanov dynasty.

So Peter the Great covered almost the entire Baltic region with dynastic marriages. To the southwest of the territory of the Russian Empire was the Duchy of Courland, where his niece ruled. Further west, the southern coast of the Baltic Sea was occupied by the Duchy of Mecklenburg, whose ruler was the husband of another niece and where her offspring could subsequently rule. Further, the southern part of the Baltic was closed by Holstein, where Peter’s son-in-law ruled, whose descendants had rights not only to the Holstein throne, but also to the Swedish one - and the longtime enemy of the Northern War could in the future become not only an ally, but also a relative of the Romanovs. And the territory of Sweden (in its Finnish part), as is known, adjoined the lands of the Russian Empire from the northwest. In other words, having entered the Baltic and established a territorial position there, Peter I simultaneously consolidated Russia dynastically in almost the entire Baltic region. But this did not help solve the main problem - the problem of succession to the throne in Russia itself.

Problems of succession to the throne. Tsarevich Alexey. Catherine I

Portrait of Tsarevich Peter Alekseevich and Princess Natalya Alekseevna as children in the form of Apollo and Diana. Painting by Louis Caravaque. Probably 1722 Wikimedia Commons

The dramatic conflict of Peter's reign was the notorious case of Tsarevich Alexei. Accused of treason, the king's son and heir was imprisoned, where he was interrogated and tortured, as a result of which he died in 1718 (his wife died even earlier). At that time, in the male generation, Peter's offspring consisted of two three-year-old children - a grandson (son Alexei), Grand Duke Peter Alekseevich, and a son from Catherine, Tsarevich Peter Petrovich.

It was Pyotr Petrovich who was declared the next heir to the throne. However, he died before he was four years old, in April 1719. Peter had no more sons from Catherine. From this moment on, the dynastic situation in royal family has become threatening. In addition to Peter and Catherine, the royal family consisted of Peter's grandson and granddaughter through his son Alexei - Peter and Natalya, two daughters from Catherine (the third, Natalya, who lived to a relatively adult age, died a little over a month after the death of Peter himself) and three nieces - Catherine , Anna and Praskovya (their mother, Tsarina Praskovya Fedorovna, died in 1723). (We do not take into account Peter’s first wife, Evdokia Feodorovna, Elena in monasticism, who, of course, did not play any role.) Anna was in Courland, and Ekaterina Ivanovna left her husband in 1722 and returned to Russia with her daughter Elizaveta Ekaterina Christina, a Lutheran religion (the future Anna Leopoldovna).

In a situation where the circle of potential heirs is extremely narrow, and the heir himself theoretically may not justify the trust of the monarch (as happened, according to Peter, in the case of Tsarevich Alexei), Peter I made a radical decision by issuing the Charter on the succession to the throne in 1722. According to this document, the sovereign had the right, at his own discretion, to appoint an heir from any of his relatives by will. One might think that in that situation this was the only way out to continue the continuity of power in the fading Romanov dynasty. The previous order of succession to the throne from father to eldest son was abolished, and the new one became, contrary to the wishes of its founder, one of the factors frequent changes power on the Russian throne, which in historiography is called the “era of palace coups.”

Peter I on his deathbed. Painting by Louis Caravaque. 1725 Wikimedia Commons

But Peter I did not have time to exercise his right of testament. The famous legend that he allegedly wrote before his death: “Give everything,” but to whom he did not have time to finish writing, is a fiction. At the time of his death in 1725, the only male heir was his grandson Pyotr Alekseevich, nine years old. In addition to him, the Romanov dynasty consisted of Peter’s widow Ekaterina Alekseevna; their daughters - Anna, who was a bride at that time, and Elizabeth; three nieces, one of whom was in Courland, and two in Russia (one with her daughter), as well as Peter’s granddaughter, Natalya Alekseevna (she would die in 1728 during the reign of her younger brother Peter II). Perhaps anticipating difficulties in the event of his death, Peter crowned his wife Catherine as empress back in 1724, giving her the absolutely legal status of empress consort. However, by the beginning of 1725, Ekaterina Alekseevna lost Peter’s trust.

There were two possible contenders for the throne - Peter's widow, Ekaterina Alekseevna, and his grandson, Peter Alekseevich. Catherine was supported mainly by Peter's associates, primarily the Menshikovs; Peter - representatives of old boyar families from the royal circle, such as princes Golitsyn, Dolgorukov, Repnin. The intervention of the guards decided the outcome of the confrontation, and Catherine I was proclaimed empress.

The era of palace coups

Catherine I (1725-1727)

Catherine I. Painting presumably by Heinrich Buchholz. XVIII century Wikimedia Commons

Catherine's family itself consisted of two daughters - Anna, who married the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, and the unmarried Elizabeth. There remained the direct heir of Peter I in the male line - Grand Duke Peter Alekseevich. In addition to him, the royal family included: his elder sister Natalya Alekseevna and three nieces of Peter I - the daughters of Tsar Ivan Alekseevich, one of whom was outside Russia. The potential heir was Pyotr Alekseevich (there was even a plan to “reconcile” the two lines of descendants of Peter I - the marriage of Pyotr Alekseevich to Elizaveta Petrovna).

At the insistence of Menshikov, who planned the marriage of Peter with his daughter Maria, a testament was signed on behalf of Catherine I shortly before her death - a will, according to which Peter Alekseevich became the heir to the throne. In the event of his childless death, Anna Petrovna and her descendants would then inherit, then Elizaveta Petrovna and her possible descendants, then Peter Alekseevich's elder sister Natalya Alekseevna and her possible descendants. Thus, for the first time, due to factual circumstances, this document assumed the transfer of rights to the throne through the female line.

It is significant that the throne was assigned only to the descendants of Peter I, and the descendants of Tsar Ivan Alekseevich were excluded from the line of succession to the throne. In addition, provision was made for the exclusion from the order of succession to the throne of persons of non-Orthodox religion, as well as those who occupied other thrones. Due to the young age of the heir, his reign was initially supposed to take place under the tutelage of the Supreme Privy Council, the highest government body in the empire, created in 1726. After the death of Catherine I in May 1727, Peter II was proclaimed emperor in accordance with her will.

Peter II (1727-1730)

Peter II. Painting by Johann Paul Ludden. 1728 Wikimedia Commons

Soon after the accession to the throne of Peter II, the eldest daughter of Peter I and Catherine I, Anna Petrovna, together with her husband, the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, left Russia. She died in 1728, giving birth to a son, Karl Peter (the future Peter III). In 1728, Peter II’s elder sister Natalya Alekseevna also died childless. The question of the emperor's possible marriage was acute. Menshikov's plans to marry Peter to his daughter collapsed as a result of court intrigues. Representatives of the family of princes Dolgorukov had a great influence on the young emperor, at whose insistence Peter was betrothed to the daughter of Alexei Dolgorukov, Ekaterina. The young emperor died suddenly from smallpox in January 1730, on the eve of the announced wedding, and did not leave a will. The attempt of the Dolgorukov princes to present the emperor's false will in favor of his bride as genuine failed. With the death of Peter II, the Romanov family in the direct male line came to an end.

By the time of the death of Peter II, the line of descendants of Peter I was represented only by the grandson of Peter I - the Holstein prince Karl Peter (two years old), who was in the Holstein capital Kiel, and the daughter of Peter I, the unmarried Elizabeth Petrovna. The line of descendants of Ivan Alekseevich was represented by three daughters of Tsar Ivan and one granddaughter of the Lutheran faith. The circle of potential heirs has narrowed to five people.

The issue of succession to the throne was decided at a meeting of the Supreme Privy Council headed by Prince Golitsyn. The testament of Catherine I, according to which, in the event of the childless death of Peter II, the throne should have passed to the offspring of Anna Petrovna (however, the Lutheran religion of Karl Peter could probably serve as an obstacle in this), and then to Elizabeth Petrovna, was ignored. The offspring of Peter I and Catherine I were perceived by members of the Council as premarital, and therefore not entirely legitimate.

At the suggestion of Prince Golitsyn, the empress was to become the Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, the middle of three sisters - the daughters of Tsar Ivan (which again contradicted the testament of Catherine I - also because Anna was the regent of a foreign throne). The main factor in choosing her candidacy was the opportunity to realize the plan of the members of the Supreme Privy Council to limit autocracy in Russia. Under certain conditions (conditions), Anna Ioannovna was invited to take the Russian throne.

Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740)

Empress Anna Ioannovna. 1730s State Historical Museum / facebook.com/historyRF

At the very beginning of her reign, Anna Ioannovna, as is known, rejected plans to limit autocratic power. In 1731 and 1733, her sisters, Praskovya and Ekaterina, died. The only relative of the Empress through Ivan Alekseevich was her niece, the daughter of Catherine’s sister, who in the same 1733, shortly before her mother’s death, converted to Orthodoxy with the name Anna (Anna Leopoldovna).

The offspring of Peter the Great still consisted of two people - a grandson, Karl Peter, who became the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp in 1739, and a daughter, Elizaveta Petrovna. To secure succession to the throne for her line, Anna Ioannovna already in December 1731 signed a manifesto “On taking the oath of allegiance to the Heir to the All-Russian Throne, who will be appointed by Her Imperial Majesty.” Thus, the principle of Peter the Great's Charter on the succession to the throne was fully restored - the exclusively testamentary nature of the Russian succession to the throne.

The future son of Anna Leopoldovna (niece of Anna Ioannovna) was supposed to be the heir. Only in 1739 was Anna Leopoldovna married to Anton Ulrich, Prince of Brunswick-Lüneburg-Wolfenbüttel, who had been in Russian service since 1733. His candidacy as the husband of the Empress's niece was lobbied by Austria. Through his mother, Antoinette Amalia, the prince was the nephew of Elizabeth Christina, the wife of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI, and also of Charlotte Christina Sophia, the wife of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich. Consequently, he was a cousin of both Empress Maria Theresa and Peter II. In addition, the prince's younger sister, Elisabeth Christina, was the wife of the Prussian heir to the throne, Frederick (later the Prussian king Frederick II the Great), from 1733. In August 1740, Anna Leopoldovna and Anton Ulrich had their first child, who was named by the dynastic name of this line of the Romanov family - Ivan (John).

A few days before her death, Anna Ioannovna signed a will in favor of Ivan Antonovich, and then appointed the Duke of Courland Biron as regent until he came of age. When premature death John Antonovich, who left no offspring, became the heir to the next potential son of Anna Leopoldovna and Anton Ulrich.

John VI (1740-1741)

Ivan VI Antonovich. 1740s Wikimedia Commons

The short reign of Emperor John VI (officially he was called John III, since the account at that time was kept from the first Russian Tsar, Ivan the Terrible; later it began to be told from Ivan Kalita) was marked by the quick elimination and arrest of Biron as a result of a conspiracy organized by Field Marshal Minich. Anna Leopoldovna was proclaimed ruler under the young emperor. In July 1741, Ivan Antonovich's sister Catherine was born. On November 25, 1741, Ivan Antonovich was overthrown from the throne as a result of a coup led by the daughter of Peter the Great, Elizaveta Petrovna.

Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761)

Portrait of young Elizabeth. Painting by Louis Caravaque. 1720s Wikimedia Commons

During the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, the “Brunswick family” - Anna Leopoldovna, Anton Ulrich, Ivan Antonovich and their other children (Ekaterina and Elizabeth, Peter and Alexey, who were born later) were imprisoned and exiled (Anna Leopoldovna died in 1746). The only heir of the unmarried empress was her nephew, Duke of Holstein Karl Peter. In 1742, he arrived in St. Petersburg, where in November of the same year he converted to Orthodoxy with the name Peter Fedorovich and was officially declared heir to the throne. In 1745, Peter Fedorovich married Ekaterina Alekseevna (before the adoption of Orthodoxy, Sophia Frederick Augustus), daughter of Prince Anhalt-Zerbst. On her mother’s side, Catherine also came from the family of the Dukes of Holstein-Gottorp and was her husband’s second cousin. Catherine's maternal uncle became the heir to the Swedish throne in 1743, and then the Swedish king, and his son, the Swedish king Gustav III, was Catherine's cousin. Another uncle was once Elizaveta Petrovna’s fiancé, but died of smallpox on the eve of the wedding. From the marriage of Pyotr Fedorovich and Ekaterina Alekseevna in 1754, a son was born - Pavel Petrovich. After the death of Elizaveta Petrovna, the last representative of the Romanov family proper, in December 1761 Peter Fedorovich became emperor under the name of Peter III.

Peter III (1761-1762) and Catherine II (1762-1796)

Portrait of Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich and Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna. The painting is believed to be by Georg Christopher Grotto. Approximately 1745 Russian Museum: virtual branch

The unpopular Emperor Peter III was overthrown on June 28, 1762 as a result of a coup led by his wife, who became Russian empress Catherine II.

At the beginning of the reign of Catherine II, during an attempt to liberate (in accordance with a certain order), the former Emperor John Antonovich, who was imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress, was killed. Anton Ulrich died in exile in 1776, four of his children were sent by Catherine to their aunt, the Danish queen, in 1780 (the last of them, Catherine Antonovna, died in Denmark in 1807).

Catherine's heir, Pavel Petrovich, was married twice. From her second marriage, with Maria Feodorovna (nee Princess of Württemberg), three sons and six daughters were born during Catherine’s lifetime (another son was born after Paul I’s accession to the throne). The future of the dynasty was assured. Having become Russian Emperor after the death of his mother in 1796, Paul I accepted new law on succession to the throne, which established a clear order of succession to the throne in order of seniority in a direct male descendant line. With its adoption, Peter's Charter of 1722 finally lost force.

In 1725, Russian Emperor Peter I died without leaving a legal heir and without transferring the throne to the chosen one. Over the next 37 years, there was a struggle for power between his relatives - contenders for the Russian throne. This period in history is usually called " era of palace coups».

A feature of the period of “palace coups” is that the transfer of supreme power in the state was not carried out by inheriting the crown, but was carried out by guards or courtiers using forceful methods.

Such confusion arose due to the lack of clearly defined rules of succession to the throne in monarchical country, which caused a fight between supporters of one or another candidate.

The era of palace coups 1725-1762.

After Peter the Great, the following sat on the Russian throne:

• Catherine I - the emperor's wife,
• Peter II - grandson of the emperor,
• Anna Ioannovna - the emperor's niece,
• Ioann Antonovich is the great-nephew of the previous one,
• Elizaveta Petrovna - daughter of Peter I,
• Peter III is the nephew of the previous one,
• Catherine II is the wife of the previous one.

In general, the era of revolutions lasted from 1725 to 1762.

Catherine I (1725–1727).

One part of the nobility, led by A. Menshikov, wanted to see the emperor’s second wife, Catherine, on the throne. The other part is the grandson of Emperor Peter Alekseevich. The dispute was won by those who were supported by the guard - the first. Under Catherine, A. Menshikov played a major role in the state.

In 1727, the Empress died, appointing the young Peter Alekseevich as successor to the throne.

Peter II (1727–1730).

Young Peter became emperor under the regency of the Supreme Privy Council. Gradually Menshikov lost his influence and was exiled. Soon the regency was abolished - Peter II declared himself ruler, the court returned to Moscow.

Shortly before his wedding to Catherine Dolgoruky, the emperor died of smallpox. There was no will.

Anna Ioannovna (1730–1740).

The Supreme Council invited the niece of Peter I, Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, to rule in Russia. The challenger agreed to conditions limiting her power. But in Moscow, Anna quickly got used to it, enlisted the support of part of the nobility and violated the previously signed agreement, returning autocracy. However, it was not she who ruled, but the favorites, the most famous of whom was E. Biron.

In 1740, Anna died, having designated her great-nephew baby Ivan Antonovich (Ivan VI) as heir under regent Biron.

The coup was carried out by Field Marshal Minich, the fate of the child is still unclear.

Elizaveta Petrovna (1741–1761).

Seize power my own daughter Peter I was again helped by the guards. On the night of November 25, 1741, Elizaveta Petrovna, who was also supported by commoners, was literally brought to the throne. The coup had a bright patriotic overtones. His main goal was to remove foreigners from power in the country. Elizaveta Petrovna's policy was aimed at continuing her father's affairs.

Peter III (1761–1762).

Peter III is the orphaned nephew of Elizabeth Petrovna, the son of Anna Petrovna and the Duke of Holstein. In 1742 he was invited to Russia and became heir to the throne.

During Elizabeth's lifetime, Peter married his cousin, Princess Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerb, the future Catherine II.

Peter's policy after the death of his aunt was aimed at an alliance with Prussia. The behavior of the emperor and his love for the Germans alienated the Russian nobility.

It was the emperor’s wife who ended the 37-year leapfrog on the Russian throne. She was again supported by the army - the Izmailovsky and Semenovsky Guards regiments. Catherine was brought to the throne as Elizabeth had once been.

Catherine proclaimed herself empress in June 1762, and both the Senate and the Synod swore allegiance to her. Peter III signed the abdication of the throne.