Presentation on the topic of carbohydrate metabolism. Carbohydrates: functions and metabolism. Functions of the pentose phosphate pathway
What are carbohydrates? Carbohydrates (sugars) are organic compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and hydrogen and oxygen are included in their composition in a 2:1 ratio, as in water, hence their name. Carbohydrates – represent the main source of “immediate use” energy and are very important for maintaining work internal organs, central nervous system, contractions of the heart and other muscles.
Groups of carbohydrates Based on their ability to hydrolyze into monomers, carbohydrates are divided into two groups: simple (monosaccharides) and complex (oligosaccharides and polysaccharides). Complex carbohydrates, unlike simple ones, can be hydrolyzed to form simple carbohydrates, monomers. Simple carbohydrates easily dissolve in water and are synthesized in green plants.
Carbohydrate metabolism Carbohydrate metabolism is a set of processes of assimilation of carbohydrates and carbohydrate-containing substances, their synthesis, breakdown and excretion from the body. It is one of the most important processes that make up the metabolism and energy that transmits biological information, the interaction between molecules and cells that provide protective and other functions of the body.
Biological role and biosynthesis of carbohydrates Carbohydrates perform a plastic function, that is, they participate in the construction of bones, cells, and enzymes. They make up 2-3% of the weight. Carbohydrates are the main energy material. When 1 gram of carbohydrates is oxidized, 4.1 kcal of energy and 0.4 kcal of water are released. The blood contains mg of glucose. The osmotic pressure of the blood depends on the concentration of glucose. Pentose (ribose and deoxyribose) are involved in the construction of ATP.
Sources of carbohydrates various organisms Carbohydrates predominate in the daily diet of humans and animals. Animals receive starch, fiber, and sucrose. Carnivores obtain glycogen from meat. Animals are unable to synthesize carbohydrates from inorganic substances. They receive them from plants with food and use them as the main source of energy obtained in the process of oxidation: In green leaves of plants, carbohydrates are formed during photosynthesis, a unique biological process of converting inorganic substances carbon monoxide (IV) and water into sugars, which occurs with the participation of chlorophyll for solar energy account
Glucose in numbers In 100 cm³ of blood mg of glucose After a meal - mg After 2 hours again 80-90 mg The glucose level remains constant even with prolonged fasting. How? U healthy person All glucose is reabsorbed in the kidneys
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Carbohydrates. Functions of carbohydrates. the role of the main source of energy in the human body. Prepared by student of group PNK-11 Semyonova Victoria
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Carbohydrates are organic compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and hydrogen and oxygen are present in a ratio (2:1) as in water, hence the name.
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Carbohydrates are substances of the composition SmN2nOp, which have a primary biochemical significance, are widespread in wildlife and play an important role in human life. Carbohydrates are part of the cells and tissues of all plant and animal organisms and, by weight, make up the bulk of organic matter on Earth. Carbohydrates account for about 80% of the dry matter in plants and about 20% in animals. Plants synthesize carbohydrates from inorganic compounds - carbon dioxide and water (CO2 and H2O).
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Carbohydrate reserves in the human body Carbohydrate reserves in the form of glycogen in the human body are approximately 500 g. The bulk of it (2/3) is located in the muscles, 1/3 in the liver. Between meals, glycogen breaks down into glucose molecules, which mitigates fluctuations in blood sugar levels. Without carbohydrates, glycogen stores are depleted in about 12-18 hours. In this case, the mechanism for the formation of carbohydrates from intermediate products of protein metabolism is activated. This is due to the fact that carbohydrates are vital for the formation of energy in tissues, especially the brain. Brain cells obtain energy primarily through the oxidation of glucose.
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Functions in the human body The first thing to note is the energy role of carbohydrates. They cover approximately 60% of the body's total calorie needs. In this case, the resulting energy is either immediately spent on heat generation, or accumulated in the form ATP molecules, which can later be used for the needs of the body. As a result of the oxidation of 1 g of carbohydrates, 17 kJ of energy (4.1 kcal) is released; The plastic role of carbohydrates is no less important. They are spent on the synthesis of nucleic acids, nucleotides, cell membrane elements, polysaccharides, enzymes, ADP and ATP, as well as complex proteins; The storage function of carbohydrates is very important. nutrients. The main depot of carbohydrates is the liver, where they are stored in the form of glycogen. In addition, small “storages” of glycogen in the muscles are also of some importance. Moreover, the more developed the latter, the greater the “energy capacity” of the organism;
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Functions in the human body The specific function of carbohydrates seems quite interesting. It lies in the fact that certain carbohydrates can prevent tumor growth, and can also determine a person’s blood type; The protective role of these substances is also important. Complex carbohydrates are an essential component of many elements immune system, and mucopolysaccharides provide protection to the mucous membranes of the body from the penetration of microorganisms and mechanical damage; Great value has a regulatory function of carbohydrates. It lies in the fact that fiber ensures the normal functioning of the intestines, without itself being broken down in the gastrointestinal tract;
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CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES MONOSACHARIDES - carbohydrates that are not hydrolyzed. Depending on the number of carbon atoms, they are divided into trioses, tetroses, pentoses, and hexoses. DISACCHARIDES are carbohydrates that are hydrolyzed to form two molecules of monosaccharides. POLYSACCHARIDES - high molecular weight compounds - carbohydrates that are hydrolyzed to form many monosaccharide molecules.
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Glucose is one of the key metabolic products that provide living cells with energy (in the processes of respiration, fermentation, glycolysis); Serves as the initial product of the biosynthesis of many substances; In humans and animals, a constant level of glucose in the blood is maintained through the synthesis and breakdown of glycogen; In the human body, glucose is found in muscles, blood and small quantities in all cells.
Carbohydrates - polyhydricaldehyde alcohols or keto alcohols.
For most carbohydrates the general formula is
(CH2O)n, n>3 – compounds of carbon with water.
Empirical formula for glucose
C6H12O6=(CH2O)6
Carbohydrates are the basis for the existence of most
organisms, because all organic matter is taken
originates from carbohydrates formed in
photosynthesis. There are more carbohydrates in the biosphere
than other organic substances.
Biological role of carbohydrates
Energy (decay)Plastic (chondroitin sulfate)
Reserve (glycogen)
Protective (membranes, joint lubrication)
Regulatory (contacts)
Hydroosmotic (GAG)
Cofactor (heparin)
Specific (receptors)
Classification of carbohydrates
Depending on complexitybuildings are divided into 3 classes:
monosaccharides
oligosaccharides
polysaccharides
Monosaccharides
MONOSACHARIDE (MONOSA) – minimalstructural unit of carbohydrates, with
crushing of which the properties disappear
sugars
Depending on the number of atoms
carbon in a molecule
monosaccharides are divided into: trioses (C3H6O3),
tetroses (C4H8O4), pentoses (C5H10O5), hexoses
(C6H12O6) and heptose (C7H14O7).
There are no other monosaccharides in nature, but they can
be synthesized. Physiologically important
monosaccharides:
1) Trioses - PHA and DOAP are formed
during the breakdown of glucose
2) Pentoses - ribose and deoxyribose,
are important components
nucleotides, nucleic acids,
coenzymes
3) Hexoses – glucose, galactose,
fructose and mannose. Glucose and
fructose is the main energy source
substrates of the human body Molecular composition of glucose and fructose
is the same (C6H12O6),
but the structure functional groups different
(aldose and ketose) Monosaccharides are less common in
living organisms in a free state,
than their more important derivatives -
oligosaccharides and polysaccharides
OLIGOSACHARIDES
include from 2 to 10 residuesmonosaccharides, connected
1,4- or 1,2-glycosidic bonds,
formed between two alcohols with
by obtaining ethers: R-O-R".
Main disaccharides –
sucrose, maltose and lactose.
Their molecular formula is C12H22O12.
Sucrose (cane or beet sugar) –
These are glucose and fructose,linked by a 1,2-glycosidic bond
The enzyme sucrase breaks down sucrose.
Maltose (fruit sugar)
These are 2 glucose molecules connected1,4-glycosidic bond. Formed in
Gastrointestinal tract during hydrolysis of starch and glycogen
food. Breaks down with maltase.
Lactose (milk sugar)
These are molecules of glucose and galactose,connected by a 1,4-glycosidic bond.
Synthesized during lactation.
The intake of lactose from food contributes to
development of lactic acid bacteria,
suppressing the development of putrefactive
processes. Breaks down with lactase.
POLYSACCHARIDES
Most natural carbohydrates are polymersnumber of monosaccharide residues
from 10 to tens of thousands.
According to functional properties:
structural – give to cells, organs and
the whole body mechanical strength.
hydrophilic soluble – highly hydrated and prevent cells and tissues from drying out.
reserve – an energy resource from which
the body receives monosaccharides, which are
cellular fuel.
Due to the polymeric nature, reserve
polysaccharides are osmotically inactive, therefore
accumulate in cells in large quantities. By structure: linear, branched
Composition: homo-, heteropolysaccharides
Homopolysaccharides (homoglycans)
consist of monosaccharide units of the same type.,
The main representatives are starch, glycogen,
cellulose.
Starch is a reserve nutrient
plants, consists of amylose and amylopectin.
The products of starch hydrolysis are called
dextrins. They come in different lengths and
shortening gradually loses iodophilicity
(ability to stain with iodine in Blue colour).Amylose has a linear structure,
all glucose residues are connected by a (1-4) glycosidic bond. Contains amylose
≈ 100-1000 glucose residues.
Makes up ≈ 15-20% of total starch. Amylopectin is branched because has through
every 24-30 glucose residues
a small number of alpha(1-6) bonds.
Amylopectin contains ≈ 600-6000 residues
glucose, molecular weight up to 3 million.
Amylopectin content in starch –
75-85%Fiber (cellulose)
main component of the cell wall
plants. Consists of ≈ 2000-11000 residues
glucose, connected, unlike starch, not by an α-, but by a β-(1-4)-glycosidic bond.
Glycogen – animal starch
Contains from 6,000 to 300,000 residuesglucose. More branched structure
than amylopectin: 1-6 bonds in glycogen
every 8-11 glucose residues connected by a 1-4 bond. Backup source
energy - stored in the liver, muscles, heart.
Heteropolysaccharides (heteroglycans)
This complex carbohydrates, consist of two andmore types of monosaccharide units
(amino sugars and uronic acids),
most often associated with proteins or lipids
Glycosaminoglycans (mucopolysaccharides)
chondroitin-, keratan- and dermatan sulfates,
hyaluronic acid, heparin.
Presented as part of the main fastening agent
substances connective tissue. Their function
consists in holding large quantity water and
filling the intercellular space. They
serve as a softening and lubricant for
various types of tissue structures that are part of
bone and dental tissues Hyaluronic acid– linear polymer from
glucuronic acid and acetylglucosamine.
Part of cell walls, synovial
liquids, vitreous eyes, envelops
internal organs, is jelly-like
bactericidal lubricant. Important component
element of skin, cartilage, tendons, bones, teeth...
main substance of postoperative scars
(adhesions, scars – drug “hyaluronidase”)
Chondroitin sulfates –
branched sulfated polymers fromglucuronic acid and N-acetylglucosamine.
Basic structural components cartilage,
tendons, cornea of the eye, contained in the skin,
bones, teeth, periodontal tissues.
The norm of carbohydrates in the diet
The reserve of carbohydrates in the body does not exceed2-3% of body weight.
Due to them, energy needs
a person can be covered for no more than 12-14 hours.
The body's need for glucose depends
on the level of energy consumption.
The minimum carbohydrate intake is 400 g per day.
65% of carbohydrates come in the form of starch
(bread, cereals, pasta), animal
glycogen
35% in the form of simpler sugars (sucrose,
lactose, glucose, fructose, honey, pectin
substances). Digestion of carbohydrates
Digestion is distinguished:
1) cavity
2) wall
The mucous membrane of the gastrointestinal tract -
natural barrier to entry
into the body of large foreign
molecules, including carbohydrates
nature
The absorption of oligo- and polysaccharides occurs during their hydrolytic breakdown into monosaccharides. Glycosidases attack 1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic bonds. About
Assimilation of oligo- andpolysaccharides comes with their
hydrolytic breakdown to monosaccharides.
Glycosidases attack
1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic bonds
Simple carbohydrates
digestion is not
are exposed, but may
fermentation occurs
some part of the molecules
in the large intestine under
action of enzymes
microorganisms
.
.CAVITY DIGESTION
Digestion of polysaccharides begins in oral cavity, where they are subjected to the chaotic action of amylase
saliva along (1-4)-bonds. Starch breaks down into dextrins of varying complexity.
In salivary amylase (activated by Cl ions),
optimum pH=7.1-7.2 (in slightly alkaline
environment). In the stomach, where the environment is sharply acidic,
starch can only be digested in
depth of the food bolus. Pepsin gastric juice breaks down amylase itself. Next, the food passes into the intestines, where the pH
neutral and exposed to
1) pancreatic amylase.
There are -, β-, γ-amylases
Alpha amylase is more widely represented, breaks down starch into dextrins
Beta amylase breaks down
dextrins to maltose disaccharide
Gamma amylase cleaves
individual terminal glucose molecules
from starch or dextrins
2) oligo-1,6-glucosidase – acts on
branch points of starch and glycogen
WALL DIGESTION
Hydrolysis of disaccharides occursnot in the intestinal lumen,
and on the surface of mucosal cells
shell under a special thin
film - glycocalyx
Disaccharides are broken down here by
action of lactase (enzyme in
composition
β-glycosidase complex), sucrase and
maltase. In this case,
monosaccharides - glucose, galactose,
fructose.
Cellulose in the human body
Humans do not have enzymes to break downβ(1-4)-glycosidic bond of cellulose.
The microflora of the large intestine can hydrolyze most of the cellulose to
cellobiose and glucose.
Functions of cellulose:
1) stimulation of intestinal motility and
bile secretion,
2) adsorption of a number of substances (cholesterol, etc.)
with a decrease in their absorption,
3) formation feces.
Only monosaccharides are absorbed in the intestine
Their transfer into mucosal cellsintestinal lining (enterocytes)
may happen:
1) by passive diffusion method
along a concentration gradient
from the intestinal lumen (where the concentration of sugar after eating is higher)
into the intestinal cells (where it is lower).
2) glucose transfer is also possible against a concentration gradient.
This is active transport: it comes with a costenergy, special
carrier proteins (GLUT).
Glucose
Carrier protein + ATP
MAIN SOURCES OF GLUCOSE
1) food;2) breakdown of glycogen;
3) synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrates
precursors (gluconeogenesis).
MAIN WAYS OF USING GLUCOSE
1) breakdown of glucose to produceenergy (aerobic and anaerobic
glycolysis);
2) glycogen synthesis;
3) pentose phosphate breakdown pathway for
obtaining other monosaccharides and
reduced NADPH;
4) synthesis of other compounds (fatty
acids, amino acids,
heteropolysaccharides, etc.).
SOURCES AND WAYS OF GLUCOSE CONSUMPTION
Glycogen is formed in almost allbody cells, but
its maximum concentration
in the liver (2-6%) and muscles (0.5-2%)
Muscle mass is significantly greater
liver mass, therefore
skeletal muscles concentrated
about 2/3 of the total
total body glycogen 35
GLYCOGENOLYSIS
Glycogen breakdown can occur whenlack of oxygen. This is a transformation
glycogen into lactic acid.
Glycogen is present in cells in the form
granules that contain enzymes
synthesis, breakdown and enzyme regulation.
The reactions of synthesis and decomposition are different, which
provides process flexibility. Molecule split off from glycogen
glucose-1-P isomerizes
with the formation of glucose-6-P
glucose-1-P
phosphogluco mutase
glucose-6-P
When the cell itself needs energy, glucose-6-P breaks down along the path of glycolysis.
If glucose is needed by other cells, then
glucose-6-phosphatase (only in the liver and
kidneys) splits phosphate from glucose-6-P,
and glucose enters the bloodstream.
GLYCOLYSIS
Glycolysis (Greek glucose - sugar, lysis -destruction) – sequence
reactions converting glucose to
pyruvate (10 reactions).
During glycolysis, part of the free
glucose breakdown energy is converted
in ATP and NADH.
Total reaction of glycolysis:
Glucose + 2 pH + 2 ADP + 2 NAD+→
2 pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2H+ + 2
H2O
Anaerobic GLYCOLYSIS
This is the main anaerobic pathwayglucose utilization
1) Occurs in all cells
2) For red blood cells - the only one
energy source
3) Prevails in tumor cells –
source of acidosis
There are 11 reactions in glycolysis,
the product of each reaction is
substrate for the next one.
The end product of glycolysis is lactate.
AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC DECOMPOSITION OF GLUCOSE
Anaerobic glycolysis, or anaerobic breakdownglucose, (these terms are synonyms) includes
reactions of a specific pathway of glucose breakdown to
pyruvate and the reduction of pyruvate to lactate. ATP
in anaerobic glycolysis it is formed only by
substrate phosphorylation
Aerobic breakdown of glucose to final products
(CO2 and H2O) includes aerobic reactions
glycolysis and subsequent oxidation of pyruvate to
general path of catabolism.
Thus, aerobic breakdown of glucose is a process
its complete oxidation to CO2 and H2O, and aerobic
Glycolysis is part of the aerobic breakdown of glucose.
ENERGY BALANCE OF AEROBIC OXIDATION OF GLUCOSE
1. In a specific breakdown pathway, glucose is formed2 molecules of pyruvate, 2 ATP (substrate
phosphorylation) and 2 molecules of NADH+H+.
2. Oxidative decarboxylation of each
pyruvate molecules - 2.5 ATP;
decarboxylation of 2 molecules of pyruvate gives 5
ATP molecules.
3. As a result of oxidation of the acetyl group
acetyl-CoA in the TCA cycle and conjugated CPE – 10 ATP;
2 molecules of acetyl-CoA form 20 ATP.
4. Malate shuttle mechanism transfers
NADH+H+ in mitochondria – 2.5 ATP; 2 NADH+H+
form 5 ATP.
Total: with the breakdown of 1 glucose molecule into
under aerobic conditions 32 molecules are formed
ATF!!!
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis – synthesis of glucosede novo from non-carbohydrate components.
Occurs in the liver and ≈10% in the kidneys.
Predecessors for
gluconeogenesis
lactate (main),
glycerol (second),
amino acids (third) – under conditions
long fasting.
Places of entry of substrates (precursors) for gluconeogenesis
RELATIONSHIP OF GLYCOLYSIS AND GLUCONEOGENESIS
1. The main substrate for gluconeogenesis islactate formed by active skeletal
muscle. The plasma membrane has
high permeability to lactate.
2. Once lactate enters the bloodstream, it is transported to the liver,
where in the cytosol it is oxidized to pyruvate.
3. Pyruvate is then converted to glucose along the way
gluconeogenesis.
4. Glucose then enters the blood and is absorbed
skeletal muscles. These transformations
constitute the Cori cycle.
MEASLES CYCLE
Glucose-alanine cycle
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PENTOSOPHOSPHATE PATHWAY
Pentose phosphate pathway of glucose breakdown (PGP)also called hexose monophosphate shunt or
phosphogluconate pathway.
This alternative oxidation pathway to glycolysis and the TCA cycle
glucose was described in the 50s of the twentieth century by F. Dickens,
B. Horeker, F. Lipmann and E. Racker.
Enzymes of the pentose phosphate pathway are localized in
cytosol. PFP is most active in the kidneys,
liver, adipose tissue, adrenal cortex,
erythrocytes, lactating mammary gland. IN
Most of these tissues undergo a process
biosynthesis of fatty acids and steroids, which requires
NADPH.
There are two phases of PPP: oxidative and
non-oxidative
FUNCTIONS OF THE PENTOSOPHOSPHATE PATHWAY
1. Formation of NADPH+H+ (50% of the body’s needs),necessary 1) for the biosynthesis of fatty acids,
cholesterol and 2) for the detoxification reaction
(reduction and oxidation of glutathione,
functioning of cytochrome P-450 dependent
monooxygenases – microsomal oxidation).
2. Synthesis of ribose 5-phosphate, used for
formation of 5-phosphoribosyl-1-pyrophosphate, which
necessary for the synthesis of purine nucleotides and
addition of orotic acid during biosynthesis
pyrimidine nucleotides.
3. Synthesis of carbohydrates with different numbers of atoms
carbon (C3-C7).
4. In plants, the formation of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate,
which is used as a CO2 acceptor in the dark
stages of photosynthesis.
Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate -
Oxidativedecarboxylation of pyruvate is the formation of acetyl~CoA from PVC -
key irreversible stage
metabolism!!!
Upon decarboxylation 1
pyruvate molecules are released 2.5
ATP.
Animals are not capable of transforming
acetyl~CoA
back to glucose.
acetyl~CoA goes into the tricarboxylic acid cycle
acids (TCA)
Tricarboxylic acid cycle
citric acid cycleKrebs cycle
Hans Krebs - Nobel laureate
awards 1953
TCA reactions occur
in mitochondria CTK
1) final common oxidation pathway
fuel molecules -
fatty acids, carbohydrates, amino acids.
Most fuel molecules
enter this cycle after becoming
acetyl~CoA.
2) The TsTK performs one more function -
supplies intermediate products
for biosynthesis processes.
Role of the TTC
energy valuesource of important metabolites,
giving rise to new metabolic pathways
(gluconeogenesis, transamination and
deamination of amino acids,
synthesis of fatty acids, cholesterol)
The following compounds are vitally important:
oxaloacetate (OAK) and α-ketoglutaric acid.
They are precursors to amino acids.
First, malate and
isocitrate, and from them are then formed in the cytoplasm
SHUK and α-KG. Then, under the influence of transaminases from Pike
aspartate is formed, and from alpha-CG - glutamate.
As a result of the oxidation of the acetyl group of acetylCoA in the TCA cycle and conjugated CPE - 10 ATP!!!
Disorders of carbohydrate metabolism with:
- fastinghypoglycemia, glucagon and adrenaline mobilize
TAG and gluconeogenesis from glycerol, FFAs go to
formation of acetyl-CoA and ketone bodies
- stress
influence of catecholamines (adrenaline - breakdown
glycogen, gluconeogenesis); glucocorticoids
(cortisol - synthesis of gluconeogenesis enzymes)
- insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
decreased insulin synthesis in β-cells
pancreas →cascade of effects Hyperglycemia, and after overcoming the renal
threshold - glucosuria occurs
Reduced transport of glucose into the cell (including
due to ↓ synthesis of GLUT molecules)
Reduced glycolysis (including aerobic
processes) and the cell lacks energy
(including for protein synthesis, etc.)
Inhibition of the pentose phosphate pathway
Glycogen synthesis is reduced and constantly
glycogen breakdown enzymes are activated
Gluconeogenesis is constantly activated (especially from
glycerol, the excess goes to ketone bodies)
Pathways unregulated by insulin are activated
glucose uptake in the cell: glucuronate pathway
GAG formation, glycoprotein synthesis
(including excessive glycosylation
proteins), reduction to sorbate, etc.
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Proteins are the most complex substances of the body and the basis of cell protoplasm. Proteins in the body cannot be formed from fats, carbohydrates, or any other substances. They contain nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and some - sulfur and others chemical elements in extremely small quantities. Amino acids are the simplest structural elements (“building blocks”) that make up the protein molecules of human cells, tissues and organs. They are organic substances with alkaline and acidic properties. A study of the structure of various proteins has revealed that they contain up to 25 different amino acids. Scientists from various countries are working on artificial protein synthesis. PROTEINS AND THEIR COMPOSITION
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Protein metabolism Protein metabolism in the body is subject to complex regulation, in which the central nervous system and endocrine glands take part. Of hormonal substances, hormone thyroid gland(thyroxine) and hormones of the adrenal cortex (glucocorticoids) help to enhance the processes of dissimilation and breakdown of proteins, and the pancreatic hormone (insulin) and the somatotropic hormone of the anterior pituitary gland (growth hormone) enhance the processes of formation (assimilation) of protein bodies in the body.
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Fats, like carbohydrates, are “combustible,” or energy, materials necessary to ensure the vital functions of the body. One gram of fat contains twice as much potential (latent) energy as one gram of carbohydrates. FATS – THE “FUEL” OF THE ORGANISM
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The oxidation of fat directly in the adipose tissue itself is facilitated by the presence of special enzymes - lipase and dehydrogenase. Under the influence of tissue lipase, fat in tissues is broken down into glycerol and higher fatty acid. Subsequently, the process of oxidation of fatty acids to carbon dioxide and water occurs, as a result of which the energy necessary for the life of the body is released.
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FAT METABOLISM Fat metabolism, like other types of metabolism, is regulated by the central nervous system directly and through the endocrine glands - the pituitary gland, the islet apparatus of the pancreas, the adrenal glands, the thyroid and gonads.
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These are trans isomers that are harmful to the body and should be avoided. Saturated fats should be kept to a minimum, but monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats are essential for our body. Moreover, if we consume enough Omega-6 ( vegetable oil We probably use it every day), but Omega-3 is usually not enough in our body. Eat fish more often! !This is interesting…
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CARBOHYDRATES Carbohydrates are substances found mainly in flora. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. In carbohydrates, a carbon atom is connected to a water molecule. There are simple and complex carbohydrates; simple carbohydrates are otherwise called monosaccharides (monos - in Greek one), and complex carbohydrates are called polysaccharides (polu - many).
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CARBOHYDRATE EXCHANGE IN THE BODY Carbohydrate metabolism is regulated by the nervous system mainly through the endocrine glands, mainly through the pancreas and adrenal glands. The adrenal medulla secretes adrenaline into the blood. Adrenaline, circulating in the blood, causes an increased conversion of liver glycogen into sugar, which leads to an increase in blood sugar levels. And hyperglycemia, as has been precisely established by scientists, increases the production of insulin under the gastric gland. summary of other presentations “Stages of energy metabolism” - Types of nutrition of organisms. The relationship between anabolism and catabolism. Presence of intact mitochondrial membranes. The splitting process. Oxidative decarboxylation. Fill in the blanks in the text. Aerobic respiration. Glycolysis. Sun. Stages of energy metabolism. Energy release. Conditions. Solar energy. Oxygen-free stage. How many glucose molecules need to be broken down? Stages of aerobic respiration.
““Energy metabolism” 9th grade” - The concept of energy metabolism. Glucose is the central molecule of cellular respiration. Mitochondria. Diagram of the stages of energy metabolism. Energy metabolism(dissimilation). Fermentation. Conversion of ATP to ADP. PVA – pyruvic acid C3H4O3. ATP composition. Three stages of energy metabolism. Structure of ATP. Fermentation is anaerobic respiration. Summary equation of the aerobic phase. ATP is a universal source of energy in the cell.
“Carbohydrate metabolism” - Involvement of carbohydrates in glycolysis. Scheme of glucose oxidation. Aldolaza. Important coenzymes. Metabolism. Hans Krebs. Anaerobic glycolysis. Sucrose. Glycogen synthesis. Summary of the Krebs cycle. Glucokinase. Mitochondria. Enzymes. Electron transport chain. Electron transfer. Enzymes. Phosphoglucoisomerase. Substrate phosphorylation. Oxidation of acetyl-CoA to CO2. Protein components of the mitochondrial ETC. Catabolism.
“Metabolism and cell energy” - Metabolism. A task with a detailed answer. Metabolism. Digestive organs. Questions with “yes” or “no” answers. Chemical transformations. Plastic exchange. Energy exchange. Text with errors. Preparing students for open-ended tasks. Definition. Test tasks.
"Metabolism" - Protein. Metabolism and energy (metabolism). A protein consisting of 500 monomers. One of the gene chains carrying the protein program must consist of 500 triplets. Solution. What primary structure will the protein have? Reactions of assimilation and dissimilation. Broadcast. 2 metabolic processes. Determine the length of the corresponding gene. Genetic code. Properties of the genetic code. DNA. Autotrophs. Molecular weight of one amino acid.
“Energy metabolism” - Repetition. Biological oxidation and combustion. Energy released in glycolysis reactions. The fate of the PVK. Enzymes of the oxygen-free stage of energy exchange. Lactic acid. Preparatory stage. The process of energy metabolism. Lactic acid fermentation. Glycolysis. Combustion. Energy exchange. Oxidation of substance A.