Diagram of the structure of the skull. Scull. Brain and facial part of the skull


The skeleton of the head is made up of paired and unpaired bones, which together are called the skull ( cranium) (Fig. 1-6). Some skull bones are spongy, others are flat and mixed.

Rice. 1. Skull, front view (facial norm):

1 - frontal bone; 2 - parietal bone; 3 - sphenoid bone; 4 - temporal bone - 5 - zygomatic bone; 6 - ethmoid bone; 7 - lacrimal bone; 8 - nasal bone; 9 - upper jaw left; 10 - lower jaw; 11 - inferior nasal concha; 12 - opener

Rice. 2. Skull, side view (lateral norm):

1 - parietal bone; 2 - frontal bone; 3 - ethmoid bone; 4 - lacrimal bone; 5 - nasal bone; 6 - right upper jaw; 7 - zygomatic bone; 8 - lower jaw; 9 - sphenoid bone; 10 - temporal bone; 11 - occipital bone

There are two sections in the skull, different in development and function. Brain skull (neurocranium) forms a cavity for the brain and some sensory organs. It consists of a vault (calvaria) and a base (basis). Facial skull (viscerocranium) is the seat of most of the sensory organs and the initial sections of the respiratory and digestive systems.

Rice. 3. Skull, occipital normal view:

1 - right parietal bone; 2 - occipital bone; 3 - right temporal bone; 4 - sphenoid bone; 5 - palatine bone; 6 - upper jaws; 7 - lower jaw

The brain skull consists of 8 bones: paired - parietal and temporal, as well as unpaired - occipital, frontal, sphenoid and ethmoid. The facial skull includes 13 bones, of which the lower jaw, vomer and hyoid bones are unpaired, and the upper jaw, zygomatic, palatine, lacrimal, nasal and inferior turbinate are paired.

Rice. 4. Skull in a vertical normal:

1 - nasal bones; 2 - frontal bone; 3 - right parietal bone; 4 - occipital bone; 5 - left zygomatic bone

The bones of the skull have a number of features. In the bones of the brain skull, which make up its vault, there are outer and inner plates of the compact substance and a spongy substance located between them, called diploe (see Fig. 5, inset). It is penetrated by diploic canals containing diploic veins. Outer plate vault (lamina externa) smooth, covered periosteum. Periosteum for internal plate (lamina interna) serves hard shell brain. The inner plate of the skull bones is thin, contains a lot of inorganic and little organic matter, so it is fragile and brittle. In case of skull injuries, its fracture occurs more often than a fracture of the outer plate.

The periosteum of the skull bones tightly fuses with the bones in the area of ​​the sutures, and throughout the rest of the length it connects loosely with the bones and limits the subperiosteal cellular space within one bone. In this space, ulcers and hematomas may occur.

Rice. 5.

1 - right parietal bone; 2 - occipital bone; 3 - right temporal bone; 4 - sphenoid bone; 5 - opener; 6 - right palatine bone; 7 - lower jaw; 8 - right upper jaw; 9 - right inferior nasal concha; 10 — right nasal bone; 11 - ethmoid bone; 12 - frontal bone. Inset - spongy substance of the bones of the cranial vault - diploe

The inner surface of the bones of the brain skull contains depressions and elevations corresponding to the convolutions and grooves of the brain, as well as branched grooves - a trace of the contact of the vessels and sinuses of the dura mater of the brain to the bones of the skull. In some places the skull has openings that serve for the passage of emissary veins connecting the venous sinuses of the dura mater of the brain, diploic and external veins of the head. The largest of these foramina are the parietal and mastoid. Some bones of the skull: the frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, temporal and maxilla contain cavities lined with mucous membrane and filled with air. These bones are called air-bearing bones.

Rice. 6.

1 - upper jaws; 2 - palatine bones; 3 — left zygomatic bone; 4 - sphenoid bone; 5 - occipital bone; 6 - right temporal bone; 7 - opener

Human anatomy S.S. Mikhailov, A.V. Chukbar, A.G. Tsybulkin

Scull protects the brain and sensory organs from external influences and provides support to the face and the initial parts of the digestive and respiratory systems. The structure of the skull is conventionally divided into the cerebral and facial sections. The cerebral part of the skull is the seat of the brain. The other (facial) section is the bone base of the face and the initial sections of the digestive and respiratory tract.

Structure of the skull

  1. parietal bone;
  2. coronal suture;
  3. frontal tubercle;
  4. temporal surface of the greater wing sphenoid bone;
  6. lacrimal bone;
  7. nasal bone;
  8. temporal fossa;
  9. anterior nasal spine;
  10. body of the maxillary bone;
  11. lower jaw;
  12. cheekbone;
  13. zygomatic arch;
  14. styloid process;
  15. condylar process of the mandible;
  16. mastoid;
  17. outer ear canal;
  18. lambdoid suture;
  19. occipital bone scales;
  20. superior temporal line;
  21. squamous part of the temporal bone.

  1. coronal suture;
  2. parietal bone;
  4. orbital surface of the greater wing of the sphenoid bone;
  5. cheekbone;
  6. inferior nasal concha;
  7. maxillary bone;
  8. chin protuberance of the lower jaw;
  9. nasal cavity;
  10. vomer;
  11. perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone;
  12. orbital surface of the maxillary bone;
  13. lower orbital fissure;
  14. lacrimal bone;
  15. orbital plate of the ethmoid bone;
  16. superior orbital fissure;
  18. zygomatic process of the frontal bone;
  19. visual channel;
  20. nasal bone;
  21. frontal tubercle

Structure of the skull brain section human develops around the growing brain from mesenchyme, which gives rise to connective tissue (membranous stage); cartilage then develops at the base of the skull. At the beginning of the 3rd month of intrauterine life, the base of the skull and the capsule (container) of the organs of smell, vision and hearing are cartilaginous. The lateral walls and vault of the cerebral part of the skull, bypassing the cartilaginous stage of development, begin to ossify already at the end of the 2nd month of intrauterine life. The individual parts of the bones are subsequently combined into a single bone; for example, it is formed from four parts. From the mesenchyme surrounding the head end of the primary gut, between the gill pouches, cartilaginous gill arches develop. The formation of the facial part of the skull is associated with them.

Structure of the skull: sections

The human skull consists of 23 bones: 8 paired and 7 unpaired. The cranial bones have a specific craniosacral rhythm. You can familiarize yourself with its amplitude in this. The bones of the skull roof are flat, consisting of thicker outer and thinner inner plates of dense substance. Between them is a spongy substance (diploe), in the cells of which there are Bone marrow And blood vessels. The structure of the skull is such that aa inner surface There are pits in the roof bones, these are finger impressions. The pits correspond to the cerebral convolutions, and the elevations between them correspond to the sulci. In addition, on the inner surface of the cranial bones, imprints of blood vessels are visible - arterial and venous grooves.

The brain section of the skull in an adult is formed by the following bones: unpaired - frontal, occipital, sphenoid, ethmoid and paired - parietal and temporal. The facial part of the skull is formed mostly by paired bones: maxillary, palatine, zygomatic, nasal, lacrimal, inferior nasal concha, as well as unpaired: vomer and mandible. The hyoid bone also belongs to the visceral (facial) skull.

Brain section of the skull

included in back wall and the base of the brain section of the skull. It consists of four parts located around the large (occipital) foramen: the basilar part in front, two lateral parts and the scales behind.

The squama of the occipital bone forms a curve at the point where the base of the skull at the back meets its roof. Here is the external occipital protuberance, to which the nuchal ligament is attached. To the right and left of the eminence, a rough superior nuchal line runs along the surface of the bone, along which the trapezius muscles, which are involved in maintaining the skull in balance, are attached to the right and left. From the middle of the external occipital protuberance, a low external nuchal crest runs down to the foramen magnum, on the sides of which a rough inferior nuchal line is visible. On the inner surface of the squama of the occipital bone, four large pits are visible, which are separated from one another by ridges forming a cruciform eminence. At the point where they intersect there is the internal occipital protrusion. This protrusion passes into the internal occipital crest, which continues down to the foramen magnum (foramen magnum). The groove of the superior sagittal sinus runs upward from the internal occipital protuberance. The groove of the transverse sinus extends from the protrusion to the right and left.

Occipital bone, posterior view

  1. external occipital protuberance;
  2. superior nuchal line;
  3. lower nuchal line;
  5. condylar fossa;
  6. jugular process;
  7. occipital condyle;
  8. intrajugular process;
  9. basilar part;
  10. pharyngeal tubercle;
  11. jugular notch;
  12. condylar canal;
  13. external nuchal crest;
  14. occipital scales.

Occipital bone, front view

  2. lambdoid margin;
  3. occipital scales;
  5. internal nuchal crest;
  6. mastoid edge;
  7. foramen magnum;
  8. sigmoid sinus groove;
  9. condylar canal;
  10. jugular notch;
  12. stingray;
  13. basilar part;
  14. lateral part;
  15. jugular tubercle;
  16. jugular process;
  17. inferior occipital fossa;
  18. groove of the transverse sinus;
  19. cruciform elevation;
  20. superior occipital fossa.

has a body from which large wings extend to the sides (laterally), small wings extend upward and laterally, and pterygoid processes hang downward. On top side body there is a depression called the sella turcica; in the center of it is the pituitary fossa, in which the pituitary gland is located - one of the endocrine glands. The pituitary fossa is limited posteriorly by the dorsum of the sella, and in front by the tubercle of the sella. Inside the body of the sphenoid bone there is an air cavity - the sphenoid sinus, which communicates with the nasal cavity through the aperture of the sphenoid sinus, located on the anterior surface of the body and facing the nasal cavity.

Two small wings extend to the sides from the anterior-superior surface of the bone body. At the base of each of the small wings there is a large opening of the optic canal, through which the optic nerve passes into the orbit. Large wings extend laterally from the lower-lateral surfaces of the body, lying almost in the frontal plane and having four surfaces. The posterior, concave surface of the brain faces the cranial cavity. The flat orbital surface of a quadrangular shape faces the orbit. The convex temporal surface of the greater wing forms medial wall temporal fossa. The infratemporal crest separates the temporal surface from the maxillary surface triangular shape, located between the orbital surface and the base of the pterygoid process. Between the lesser and greater wings there is a wide superior orbital fissure leading from the cranial cavity to the orbit. At the base of the greater wing there are openings: anterior (medial) – a round opening (through which the maxillary nerve passes into the pterygopalatine fossa); laterally and posteriorly there is a larger foramen ovale (through which the mandibular nerve passes into the infratemporal fossa); even more lateral is the foramen spinosum (through it the middle meningeal artery enters the cranial cavity). From the base of the large wing, a pterygoid process extends down on each side, at the base of which the pterygoid canal runs from front to back. Each pterygoid process is divided into two plates - the medial one, ending in a hook, and the lateral one. Between them on back side there is a pterygoid fossa.

Sphenoid bone, front view

  1. aperture of the sphenoid sinus;
  2. saddle back;
  3. wedge-shaped shell;
  4. small wing;
  5. superior orbital fissure;
  6. zygomatic margin;
  7. infratemporal crest;
  8. sphenoid bone;
  9. pterygopalatine groove of the pterygoid process;
  11. wing-shaped hook;
  13. processus vaginalis;
  14. wedge-shaped beak (wedge-shaped crest);
  15. pterygoid notch;
  16. pterygoid canal;
  17. round hole;
  18. infratemporal crest;
  19. orbital surface of the greater wing;
  20. temporal surface of the greater wing.

Sphenoid bone, posterior view

  1. visual channel;
  2. saddle back;
  3. posterior inclined process;
  4. anterior inclined process;
  5. small wing;
  6. superior orbital fissure;
  7. parietal edge;
  8. large wing;
  9. round hole;
  10. pterygoid canal;
  11. navicular fossa;
  12. pterygoid fossa;
  13. pterygoid notch;
  14. groove of the pterygoid hook;
  15. processus vaginalis;
  16. wedge-shaped beak;
  17. body of the sphenoid bone;
  18. medial plate of the pterygoid process;
  19. wing-shaped hook;
  20. lateral plate of the pterygoid process;
  21. carotid fissure.

consists of three parts: scaly, tympanic and pyramidal (stony), located around the external auditory canal, which is limited mainly by the tympanic part of the temporal bone. The temporal bone is part of the side wall and base of the skull. In front it is adjacent to the sphenoid bone, and behind it is adjacent to the occipital bone. The temporal bone serves as a container for the organ of hearing and balance, which lies in the cavities of its pyramid.

The petrous part has the shape of a triangular pyramid, the apex of which is directed to the sella turcica of the body of the sphenoid bone, and the base is directed backward and laterally, passing into the mastoid process. The pyramid has three surfaces: the anterior and posterior, facing the cranial cavity, and the lower, involved in the formation of the outer base of the skull. On the front surface at the apex of the pyramid there is a trigeminal depression in which the node lies trigeminal nerve, behind it is an arcuate elevation formed by the superior semicircular canal of the bony labyrinth of the organ of hearing and balance located in the pyramid. Laterally from the eminence, a flat surface is visible - the roof of the tympanic cavity and two small openings located here - the clefts of the canals of the greater and lesser petrosal nerves. By top edge of the pyramid, separating the anterior and posterior surfaces, there is a groove of the superior petrosal sinus.

Temporal bone, external, lateral view

  1. scaly part;
  2. temporal surface;
  3. wedge-shaped edge;
  4. zygomatic process;
  5. articular tubercle;
  6. stony-scaly fissure;
  7. petrotympanic fissure;
  8. drum part;
  9. styloid process;
  10. external auditory opening;
  11. mastoid;
  12. mastoid notch;
  13. tympanomastoid fissure;
  14. mastoid foramen;
  15. supraductal spine;
  16. parietal notch;
  17. groove of the middle temporal artery;
  18. parietal edge.

On back surface pyramid there is an internal auditory opening, which passes into the internal auditory canal, which ends in a plate with holes. The largest hole leads into the facial canal. Small openings serve for the passage of the vestibulocochlear nerve. On the posterior surface of the pyramid there is an external opening of the aqueduct of the vestibule, and on the lower edge the cochlear canaliculus opens. Both canals lead to the bony labyrinth of the vestibulocochlear organ. At the base of the posterior surface of the pyramid there is a groove for the sigmoid sinus.

On bottom surface pyramid, at the jugular foramen, bounded by the notches of the temporal and occipital bones, there is a jugular fossa. Lateral to it, a long styloid process is visible.

Temporal bone, internal view (medial side)

  1. parietal edge;
  2. arcuate elevation;
  3. tympanosquamosal fissure;
  4. parietal notch;
  5. groove of the superior petrosal sinus;
  6. mastoid foramen;
  7. occipital edge;
  8. sigmoid sinus groove;
  9. back surface of the pyramid;
  10. jugular notch;
  11. external opening of the vestibule water supply;
  12. subarc fossa;
  13. external opening of the cochlear canaliculus;
  15. groove of the inferior petrosal sinus;
  16. trigeminal depression;
  17. top of the pyramid;
  18. zygomatic process;
  19. wedge-shaped edge;
  20. brain surface.

It is a quadrangular plate, its outer surface is convex, and the parietal tubercle is visible in the center. The inner surface of the bone is concave and has arterial grooves. The four edges of the parietal bone are connected to other bones, forming corresponding sutures. The frontal and occipital sutures are formed with the frontal and occipital bones, the sagittal suture is formed with the opposite parietal bone, and the squamosal suture is formed with the scales of the temporal bone. The first three edges of the bone are jagged and participate in the formation of jagged sutures, the last is pointed and forms a scaly suture. The bone has four angles: occipital, sphenoid, mastoid and frontal.

Parietal bone, outer surface

  1. parietal tubercle;
  2. sagittal edge;
  3. frontal angle;
  4. superior temporal line;
  5. frontal edge;
  6. inferior temporal line;
  7. wedge angle;
  8. scaly edge;
  9. mastoid angle;
  10. occipital edge;
  11. occipital angle;
  12. parietal foramen.

consists of vertical frontal scales and horizontal orbital parts, which, turning into each other, form the supraorbital edges; the nasal part is located between the orbital parts.

The frontal scales are convex, with frontal tubercles visible on it. Above the supraorbital margins are brow ridges, which, converging in the medial direction, form a platform above the root of the nose - glabella. Laterally, the orbital margin continues into the zygomatic process, which connects to the zygomatic bone. The inner surface of the frontal bone is concave and passes into the orbital parts. It shows the sagittally oriented groove of the superior sagittal sinus.

The orbital part - right and left - are horizontally located bone plates, with the lower surface facing the cavity of the orbit, and the upper surface facing the cavity of the skull. The plates are separated from each other by a lattice notch. On the nasal part there is a nasal spine, which participates in the formation of the nasal septum, on the sides of it there are openings (apertures) leading into the frontal sinus - an air cavity located in the thickness of the frontal bone at the level of the glabella and superciliary arches.

The facial structure of the skull represents the bony basis of the face and the initial sections of the digestive and respiratory tract; the masticatory muscles are attached to the bones of the facial section of the skull.

Frontal bone, front view

  1. frontal scales;
  2. frontal tubercle;
  3. parietal edge;
  4. frontal suture;
  5. glabella;
  6. zygomatic process;
  7. supraorbital margin;
  8. bow;
  9. nasal bone;
  10. frontal notch;
  11. supraorbital foramen;
  12. temporal surface;
  13. brow ridge;
  14. temporal line.

  1. parietal edge;
  2. groove of the superior sagittal sinus;
  3. brain surface;
  4. frontal ridge;
  5. zygomatic process;
  6. finger impressions;
  7. blind hole;
  8. nasal bone;
  9. lattice tenderloin;
  10. orbital part.

formed by the lower surface of the cerebral part of the skull and part of the facial part. The structure of the anterior skull is formed by the bony palate and the alveolar arch formed by the maxillary bones. In the middle seam hard palate and in its posterolateral sections small openings are visible through which thin arteries and nerves pass. Middle section formed by the temporal and sphenoid bones, its anterior border is the choanae, its posterior border is the anterior edge of the large (occipital) foramen. Anterior to the foramen magnum (occipital) is the pharyngeal tubercle.

Structure of the skull. External base of the skull

  1. palatine process of the maxillary bone;
  2. incisive foramen;
  3. median palatal suture;
  4. transverse palatal suture;
  5. choana;
  6. inferior orbital fissure;
  7. zygomatic arch;
  8. opener wing;
  9. pterygoid fossa;
  10. lateral plate of the pterygoid process;
  11. pterygoid process;
  12. oval foramen;
  13. mandibular fossa;
  14. styloid process;
  15. external auditory canal;
  16. mastoid;
  17. mastoid notch;
  18. occipital condyle;
  19. condylar fossa;
  21. lower nuchal line;
  22. external occipital protuberance;
  23. pharyngeal tubercle;
  24. condylar canal;
  25. jugular foramen;
  26. occipital-mastoid suture;
  27. external carotid foramen;
  28. stylomastoid foramen;
  29. torn hole;
  30. petrotympanic fissure;
  31. foramen spinosum;
  32. articular tubercle;
  33. wedge-squamous suture;
  34. wing-shaped hook;
  35. greater palatine foramen;
  36. zygomaticomaxillary suture.

Relief internal base of the skull due to the structure of the lower surface of the brain. The structure of the skull of this section is as follows: on the internal base of the skull there are three cranial fossae: anterior, middle and posterior. The anterior cranial fossa, which contains frontal lobes hemispheres big brain, formed by the orbital parts of the frontal bone, the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, part of the body and the small wings of the sphenoid bone. The posterior edge of the small wings separates the anterior cranial fossa from the middle cranial fossa, in which the temporal lobes cerebral hemispheres. The pituitary gland is located in the pituitary fossa of the sella turcica. Here the structure of the skull has its own characteristics. The middle cranial fossa is formed by the body and large wings of the sphenoid bone, the anterior surface of the pyramids and the squamosal part of the temporal bones. Anterior to the pituitary fossa is the precross groove, and the dorsum sellae rises behind it. On the lateral surface of the body of the sphenoid bone, a carotid groove is visible, which leads to the internal opening of the carotid canal; at the apex of the pyramid there is a ragged opening. Between the lesser and greater wings and the body of the sphenoid bone on each side there is the superior orbital fissure, narrowing in the lateral direction, through which the oculomotor, trochlear and trigeminal cranial nerves pass. optic nerve(branch of the trigeminal nerve). Posterior and inferior to the fissure are the round, oval and spinous foramina described above. On the anterior surface of the pyramid of the temporal bone, near its apex, a trigeminal depression is visible.

Structure of the skull. Inner base of the skull

  1. orbital part of the frontal bone;
  2. cockscomb;
  3. cribriform plate;
  4. visual channel;
  5. pituitary fossa;
  6. saddle back;
  7. round hole;
  8. oval foramen;
  9. torn hole;
  10. bony opening;
  11. internal auditory opening;
  12. jugular foramen;
  13. sublingual canal;
  14. lambdoid suture;
  15. stingray;
  16. groove of the transverse sinus;
  17. internal occipital protuberance;
  18. foramen magnum (occipital);
  19. occipital scales;
  20. sigmoid sinus groove;
  21. pyramid (stony part) of the temporal bone;
  22. squamous part of the temporal bone;
  23. greater wing of the sphenoid bone;
  24. lesser wing of the sphenoid bone.

Based on materials from the site telegra.ph

Before you start drawing a human head, you need to get acquainted with it anatomical structure based on the skull. After all, the nature of the shape of the head is determined by the structural features of the skull.

You need to know the structure of the skull shape from a purely plastic side. Plastic anatomy is a science closely related to the fine arts that studies the internal structure of the human and animal body to determine its external shape.

Two genetic parts make up the skull. One is called the brain, it includes the frontal and occipital, temporal, parietal bones. The other is called the facial part of the skull, and it includes the upper and lower jaws, zygomatic, nasal bones, zygomatic processes, etc.

So, you should be interested exclusively in the plastic anatomy of the human head. The importance of studying the skull in this sense is great, and the more the draftsman knows, the more accurately he draws.

The brain part of the human skull includes eight bones. You need to know those that play a role in drawing.

The frontal bone forms the surface of the human forehead and has two convex protrusions at the top right and left - the so-called frontal tubercles. Below the frontal tubercles there are also two convexities - the brow ridges. Between them lies a depression - the glabella.

In the lower part, the frontal bone ends with a sharp-shaped transition into the orbit - the socket for the eye - and is called the supraorbital margin. Outwardly, the frontal bone, continuing the supraorbital margin, passes into the zygomatic process, connecting it with the zygomatic bone. On the right and left, the frontal bone passes into the surfaces of the temporal and sphenoid bones, and at the boundaries of these transitions there is a ridge, or, as it is also called, the temporal line. This line limits the temporal cavity lying above the zygomatic arch.

The frontal bone is unpaired, although in the human embryo it is formed from the right and left halves. Then both halves grow together, and in almost every skull in this place a small elevation is barely visible, located in the vertical direction. In drawing a human head, the frontal bone, the shape of which should be studied, plays a role in conveying facial plasticity important role(Fig. 43).

Rice. 43

The parietal bone is a pair, located between the frontal and occipital bones. This bone also has its own tubercle - a protrusion, very noticeable. The shape of the bone resembles a trapezoid, having four edges. It is connected to its neighbors using sutures - coronoid to frontal and lambdoid to occipital. Both parietal bones occupy a significant area of ​​the brain part of the skull, connecting in its middle with the so-called sagittal suture. And one more feature characterizes the surface of the parietal bone. You already know what the temporal line is. Here it continues, however, bifurcating into parallel upper and lower lines (Fig. 44) on the parietal bone.


Rice. 44

The unpaired occipital bone has a foramen magnum, which is necessary for the spinal canal through which the brain communicates with the spinal cord. The external occipital prominence is most prominent at the occipital bone. From this elevation, the nuchal lines are directed to the right and left - the places of attachment of the neck muscles. In some people, there is another protrusion on the occipital bone, located on the border of the lambdoid suture. It is necessary to know the external anatomical properties of the occipital bone because it is an integral part of the plastic form of the human skull (Fig. 45).

Rice. 45

The inferolateral walls of the brain part of the skull are the temporal bones (Fig. 46). The temporal bone is adjacent to the occipital bone at the back, and from above it is connected to the parietal bone using a scaly suture. This bone is formed so that it contains the auditory canal. Behind the auditory canal there is a mastoid process, and in front there is a zygomatic process stretching forward, which has a depression at the auditory canal - the mandibular fossa, which serves for articulation with the head of the lower jaw bone. The zygomatic process ends at the junction with the zygomatic bone.

Rice. 46

The other part of the skull - the facial - is formed by fourteen bones. The largest of these bones are two maxillary, two zygomatic and one mandibular.

The upper jaw - paired - has a triangular shape and four processes. This bone, which serves as a solid basis for the surface of the human face, is located from the eye sockets, down to the upper teeth. In the upper part, the surface of the jaw bends into the orbit, and its so-called frontal process at the bridge of the nose fuses with the frontal bone. Both frontal processes serve as a support for two paired nasal bones, fused along midline with each other and thus forming a fixed bony part of the nose. The inner edges of the right and left maxillary bones form the boundaries of the pyriform nasal opening and below fuse along the midline, forming a protrusion - the anterior nasal spine. The front surface of the bone has a pronounced depression under the eye sockets, which is called the canine or canine fossa. In the lower part, the maxillary bone forms another process - the alveolar. It is also called alveolar (along its arch there are holes in which the roots of the teeth are placed). Alveoli, i.e. There are eight dental cells, holes, in each maxillary bone. The fourth process is called the palatine.

The general shape of the fused maxillary bones is horseshoe-shaped (Fig. 47).

The mandibular bone, along with the frontal bone, plays a large role in the plastic structure of the face. Unpaired, it has a horseshoe-shaped body, on the front surface of which in the middle there is a mental prominence, slightly below which there are mental tubercles on both sides.

The upper lateral processes of the lower jaw - the anterior coronoid and posterior articular - serve, respectively, for articulation with the temporal bones and attachment of the temporal muscles. The lower jaw bends in two places, where angles are formed, from which branches of the bone with the already mentioned paired processes extend upward. To the right and left of the mental eminence lie the mental foramina. The mandibular bone in its upper section has a lunula (for the roots of the lower teeth) part.

The mandibular bone (Fig. 48) completes the skull in its lower part. Its shape and size significantly influence the single, plastically perfect volume of the human head.

Rice. 47

Rice. 48

The paired zygomatic bone plays its role in the plasticity of the human face, influencing significantly cross dimension heads. Fused at the top with the frontal, and on the anterior surface with the maxillary bones, the zygomatic bone forms the outer wall of the eye socket (Fig. 49). At the back, the zygomatic bone is fused with the sphenoid and temporal bones and participates in the formation of the zygomatic arch.

Eye sockets - eye sockets - paired recesses, having the shape of a smoothed tetrahedral pyramid, are intended by nature for eyeballs. The bony walls of the eye socket have several openings through which the nerves and blood vessels of the visual organ pass.

Rice. 49

The upper wall of the orbit is formed by the frontal bone, the rest - respectively, the maxillary (lower), zygomatic and sphenoid (external), and the ethmoid bone takes a decisive part in the formation of the internal one (Fig. 50).

You have learned about the two parts of the human skull, become acquainted with the most basic bones that play a role in the plastic interpretation of the human head, and what lies ahead is practical drawing of the skull, which is necessary to deepen your knowledge when moving on to depicting the head.

But what is a skull, why is it necessary to draw it?

Rice. 50

Let's start with the fact that the authors of all greatest works fine arts, including the image of a person, they knew anatomy thoroughly. For example, the brilliant Michelangelo studied anatomy by cutting up corpses, doing it secretly in morgues, because such an activity was strictly prohibited by the Catholic Church in those days. Of course, artists did not study anatomy by touch or purely speculatively. Ancient Greek sculpture in the examples that have reached us amazes with the exceptional knowledge of anatomy by their authors. We can now, unfortunately, never know what method the Greeks used to study anatomy, but even if we assume that they did not subject corpses to dissection, but had the opportunity to observe the naked human body in a variety of movements in various competitions of wrestlers, discus and javelin throwers , runners, etc.

Leonardo da Vinci inquisitively studied the anatomy of not only humans, but also animals, and over 700 anatomical drawings remain from his asceticism.

In the middle of the 16th century. Italian physician and anatomist Andpea Vesalius wrote and published the book “The Device human body", illustrations for which were made by Titian and his students.

The first Russian manual on anatomy for artists was compiled and published by the artist Anton Pavlovich Losenko. The book was called “A Brief Explanation of Human Proportions,” published in 1771, and until the middle of the next century it was the main guide to anatomy. A brief explanatory text was accompanied by excellent anatomical tables made by Losenko himself, reproductions of which were designed for visual display and visual memory of young artists. The success of the book, published in a small edition, was such that copies were multiplied by redrawing tables and copying the text. This is how important knowledge of anatomy was for the students of that time!

As you become familiar with the major bones of the skull, you can resort to feeling your head. To do this, place your hands with your palms on your neck and try to feel something: alone muscle mass, and underneath them there is something harder deep down. But then you begin to feel the lower part of the head from behind with your fingers, lifting them higher, and after a while you will feel the bone of the back of the head under the skin. Touch it carefully and remember what this bone is called, what elevations it has, etc. Find on yourself the zygomatic and others that have external plastic identification of the bone. The edges of the eye sockets, the entire lower jaw, the frontal and parietal bones can be clearly felt.

Such an experiment on yourself is very useful, since the sense of touch helps to firmly remember all available protrusions and indentations. You can conduct the same experiment with yourself with the touch of the main muscles once you become familiar with their name and location.

We repeat, drawing from life develops the accuracy of the eye, its ability to accurately “read” the structure of the human head, complex and thoroughly hidden by the muscle-skin layer, develops visual memory and perception of the shape of the head in spatial projections and angles.

Drawing from life on the base plastic anatomy is nothing more than collecting the studied parts into one whole. Knowledge of anatomy and drawing a human head from life is the unity of theory and practice in the artist’s work. It follows that anatomy for students of the basics of visual literacy is a kind of building material in drawing a person.

Getting to know the structure of bones cranium and the front part of the skull, try to closely connect theory with practice in drawing from life.

Tone drawing of a human skull

The image of the skull has its own characteristics. On the one hand, nature itself is unattractive for a certain reason, and it is only the consciousness that it is necessary that holds it back. On the other hand, this is not a full-scale artificial model made of plastic or papier-mâché, which, although it has forms corresponding to genuine nature, is still to some extent ennobled, or, more accurately, smoothed, and the surface color is light gray. Here in front of you is a genuine skull, which has a special coloring of an unpleasant shade, with spots that destroy the already complex shape.

The personal practice of each of you will tell you a lot. For example, a spot or group of spots that affects visual perception individual parts general form should be ignored by you. We must learn to look out for the main thing, to see big shape and submit the details to her. You need to see the basic proportions, the proportional ratio of the mass of the skull to the mass of the facial part, the entire shape of the frontal part, cheekbones and jaws, etc. Of course, this difficult task is not easy.

When drawing from nature, you need to set yourself a certain specific task, for example, building proportions. Since drawing from life while studying is a training activity, that’s how you should treat it. Here, fantasy, creative form-making on one’s own, as well as premature infatuation with complex tasks are incompatible with educational drawing.

You already know that when working from life there is no point in immediately taking on a long, detailed drawing. Here every time you need to get involved in the drawing process. Just as an athlete needs a run-up and warm-up before a start, or a musician needs a mood before a concert, so before long work you need preliminary tests in the form of a layout sketch or a pencil sketch in which you can operate with large, generalized masses characteristic of the image of a skull . We repeat that the ability to fully perceive nature comes into force later than the moment when you begin your main work. A preliminary test of the layout of the drawing, a sketch aimed at finding general proportions, modulation of large forms with the help of chiaroscuro, sharpen the visual perception and attention of the draftsman, after which it is easy to move on to the main drawing.

There is one more feature in drawing from life. The fact is that in the process of work, before completing the image, you, as still inexperienced, experience a fading of concentration and the necessary perception of your drawing and nature, and this happens somewhat earlier than you feel it. You could have done something at this stage of work much more competently and better if, having been carried away by some detail, you had not noticed the onset of fatigue. What to do in this case? Switch your attention at least to sketches, for example, from the same nature, but from a different point of view, from some angle. In the work of drawing a skull, fatigue is caused purely psychologically, and don’t get too carried away here.

Let's look at the work on the skull drawing in more detail, in its sequence, in the interconnectedness of all stages.

The skull must be drawn under artificial lighting. Due to the fact that the authentic skull in daylight, not directed, mostly diffused, does not look contrasting, its outlines are softened to better distinguish the volume and important details Directional light from an electrical source is selected.

At the very first lesson in drawing a skull, you must first of all carefully analyze the nature. Carry out the analysis taking into account the point of view from which you have to work. You already know what analysis is, but let us briefly remind you that it is the mental division of a drawn object into separate elements. The more complex the form, the more and more seriously one has to study nature. Work during analysis requires a special approach: your consciousness is involved here, your brain is working, clear logical thinking is activated.

A detailed analysis of nature requires developed spatial thinking and imaginative imagination in order to more clearly imagine and understand the structure of the form visible object. In the process, it is necessary to examine the skull from all sides. Having gained an idea of ​​the full-scale model, determine for yourself all the stages of the upcoming work: beginning, continuation and completion.

Make a preliminary sketch or study, sketch or layout sketch, short introductory drawing, i.e. approach the upcoming work with heightened visual perception and attention to nature. So, the preliminary exercise is intended to give you the necessary artistic groundwork.

Now you have become like builders laying the foundation of a structure. You place a sheet of a certain format (a quarter of Whatman paper size) in front of you on an easel in vertical position. Think again about the layout of the drawing, try to “see” it as if it were already finished in this format.

Use light lines to outline the large shape of the skull. Of course, the format of the sheet will not allow you to draw a skull in its natural size - it will turn out to be large and “rest” against the edges of the paper. Adhere to strict compliance with all work requirements, and you will be confident that nature has begun to “listen” to the pencil.

After you have outlined the large shape, proceed to determining the basic proportions of the skull and its position in space - a possible tilt forward or backward, depending on the setting of the model. To make this easier, draw conditional auxiliary lines, one of which will be median (otherwise called profile), the other will be horizontal. Auxiliary lines form a cross-shaped intersection that determines the position (in this case of the skull) of the nature in space. The midline divides the image exactly in half if the skull is positioned frontally in relation to the drawer, i.e. directly facing the front part. But the line continues to remain the median for various positions of nature, since it runs vertically through the middle of the frontal part, the pyriform opening of the nose, the maxillary and mandibular bones. The horizontal line in various positions of nature is also conventional; it passes through the middle of the eye sockets and divides the skull into two approximately equal parts in height. The location of the skull in the format depends on correctly drawn auxiliary lines.

Outline general proportions with the obligatory involvement of geometric volumes: for example, a skull can be “placed” in a parallelepiped. Determine the proportions by eye, clarify if necessary, and at the same time proceed to constructing perspective planes that limit the volume of the skull (the surface of the frontal, frontal and lateral parts). Always focus on the auxiliary median and horizontal lines. They “hold” the formation well. Based on these two landmarks, clarify all the components of the front part of the skull in relation to each other: the frontal bone to the eye sockets, the zygomatic bones to the pyriform opening, the upper jaw to the lower.

During this period of the image, try to clearly feel the shape of the skull with all its convexities and concavities, protrusions and depressions. Constantly compare one thing to another. Such a comparison is very helpful in correctly determining the volumetric and structural shape of the skull and its main surfaces (Fig. 51).

Having determined the proportional relationships of the parts of the skull and given the volumetric and structural characteristics of its constituent elements, begin to gradually move on to the next stage - a detailed elaboration of all specific forms.

You know well that this stage The work is the most difficult due to the careful study of nature. Until now, you have built an image, being extremely attentive to the general, to the proportional relationships of the parts, to the search for the relationship of all elements of the form. Now you are moving on to that segment of work when you need to maintain the general at all times, no matter how well the details are worked out.

Rice. 51

Having quickly looked at the nature, fix your attention on two or three points, which are purely conditional, but will become a kind of “center of concentration of the gaze.” The result here is a suddenly discovered ability to see the entire configuration of the skull. Such a “vision” of nature at once, in its entirety, does not allow one to switch to any detail that distracts from the general.

Learn to use so-called peripheral vision while drawing from life. And in this case, the nature in question is perceived only in its general norm, but the details don’t seem to exist. The vagueness of all the details in the subject of the image does not interfere with seeing the general, and for a draftsman this is very important.

Consequently, at the stage of working out the details, you need to see the general thing all the time, not stop at any one place in the drawing until it is completely complete, but model the shape with tone gradually and everywhere at the same time. There are always enough fascinating places in a drawing to make you want to work on one of them to its full effect, but you should understand that in this case the “particulars” destroy the image, lead away from educational tasks, and interfere with the development of an artist. This means that you need self-control in the drawing process, focusing attention primarily on the general, bypassing the specifics. All theoretical information, as a rule, very quickly disappears from memory and is forgotten if it is not reinforced practical exercises, ranging from quick drawings to long-lasting images.

Rice. 52

When working with a pencil, do not use all of its covering power at once; draw with medium strength, maintaining a sufficient supply of light-and-shadow gradations to complete the image. Vary your shading based on the shape.

At the last stage of working on the skull drawing - the generalizing one - you need to check the entire image again, step back, look at it from some distance, and then proceed to completion.

Now you are faced with the task of achieving such an image when the drawing is perceived as a whole, i.e. the contrast is correctly defined in it, every detail subordinate to the whole is noticeable.

At the final stage of drawing, it is very important to trace the tonal relationships and illumination of the skull as a whole and its parts as they move away and approach the light source. Remove the excessive brightness of the reflexes, as they “argue” with the halftones, lighten, “calm down” the possible darkening of the eye sockets and pear-shaped opening, and other shadow areas of the image. All this is very noticeable if you step away from the drawing and look at it with your eyes “squinted”.

The clarity of the elaboration of the elements of the skull pattern in the foreground should exceed everything else (Fig. 52).

Summing up the work done is associated with checking the general condition of the drawing. General state The drawing should be such that everything in the image looks identical (as “the same thing”) to the visual image that arose during observation of nature from a certain point of view. You can understand this if you look at a specific object surrounded by others, but highlighting this one from them. The remaining items, although subordinated visual center, but are perceived here in less detail. When a specific object is isolated and the rest are generalized, the visual objects that have become figurative reflections in the image are identical.

An indispensable condition for every long-term drawing from life is the correct tone of the depicted object, highlighting the most important thing in the image through more careful elaboration and generalizing the entire form.

Control questions. Practical task

1. What two parts does the human skull consist of?

2. Name the external bones of the brain part of the skull and give them a brief explanation.

3. Do you think the skull has movable bones?

4. What are cheekbones and what role do they play as bones of the skull?

5. Remember what sutures connect the bones?

6. What is the alveolar process and what bone does it belong to?

7. How many processes does the maxillary bone have? Name them.

8. Where is the mastoid process located in the skull?

9. Where is the lambdoid suture?

10. Which bone does the zygomatic process belong to?

11. What is the significance of the practical study of the human skull?

12. Draw several sketches of the skull from different angles.

The skull is a bony frame consisting of 23 bones. It protects the brain from damage. This frame has 7 unpaired and 8 paired bones.

Structure

The structure of the skull is divided into two main sections - the brain and the facial. Its departments perform a number of functions. The facial part of the skull affects digestion, breathing and sensory organs. This section consists of unpaired (lower jaw, vomer, ethmoid and hyoid bones) and paired (nasal, lacrimal, zygomatic and palatine bones, inferior turbinate, upper jaw) bones.

The unpaired bones of the human skull have areas filled with air. Anatomists include the upper jaw, temporal, frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid and paired bones as air cavities. The upper bones of the skull are flat. They consist of plates containing bone substance, the cells of which contain blood vessels and bone marrow.

The brain section of the human skull consists of paired (temporal and parietal) and unpaired (frontal sphenoid and occipital) bones. This section is considered a frame that protects the brain. It is located above the facial section. The parietal bone forms the vault, and the occipital bone forms the base of the skull. The aerial temporal bone forms the cranial vault and also houses the hearing organs. The aerial frontal bone has a nasal part and two scales. As for the pneumatic sphenoid bone, it consists of a body that has a pituitary gland located in the pituitary fossa.

The bones of the human skull are connected to each other by sutures.

Functions

The human skull is a complex bony organ that performs the following functions:

  • Serves as a strong frame for the senses and brain.
  • Its bones connect the chewing, facial and neck muscles.
  • Participates in digestion.
  • Takes part in the process of speech and the formation of sounds.

Injuries

Skull injuries are serious pathological conditions which can lead to severe operational problems human body: memory and speech impairment, mental disorders, paralysis. The most common injuries are:

  • Traumatic brain injury.
  • Fracture of the base of the skull.
  • Open and closed vault fracture.

A fracture of the skull vault is accompanied by breathing problems and memory loss. This fracture manifests itself in the form of a hematoma of the scalp. A person with such an injury must be placed on a flat surface and a bandage placed on the head. If a person is unconscious, then he must be placed on a stretcher and a bolster or pillow placed under one side of the body. In case of breathing problems, it is carried out artificial respiration, after which the patient is urgently taken to the hospital for a medical examination.

If we talk about a fracture of the base of the skull, it is characterized by headache, dizziness, loss of consciousness and bleeding from the ears and nose. IN similar situation should be released immediately oral cavity And Airways from blood and cerebrospinal fluid. If breathing is impaired, artificial respiration must be performed.

Traumatic brain injury leads to concussion. It is accompanied by headache, dizziness, loss of consciousness, increased heart rate, nausea, vomiting, general weakness, pallor of the face, as well as disruption of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems. Such a patient needs to be given artificial respiration immediately and indirect massage hearts. In addition, a bandage must be immediately applied to the surface of the wound, followed by hospitalization.

As for intracranial formations, they require craniotomy. Trepanation is surgery with the formation of a hole. The main goal of craniotomy is to reach the injured area where the hematoma or other neoplasms are located.

Sections of the skull. The skull (cranium) consists of brain And facial departments. All bones are connected to each other relatively motionlessly, except for the lower jaw, which forms a combined joint, and the movable hyoid bone, which lies freely on the neck. The bones of the cranium form the container for the brain, cranial nerves and sense organs.

TO brain section The skull (neurocranium) includes 8 bones:

  • unpaired- occipital, sphenoid, ethmoid, frontal;
  • doubles- parietal and temporal.

TO facial area The skull (splanchnocranium) includes 15 bones:

  • unpaired- lower jaw, vomer, hyoid bone;
  • doubles- upper jaw, palatine, zygomatic, nasal, lacrimal, inferior nasal concha.

Brain bones. The bones of the brain skull, unlike the bones of the facial skull, have a number of features: on their inner surface there are imprints of the convolutions and grooves of the brain. The canals for veins lie in the spongy substance, and some bones (frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid and temporal) have air sinuses.

Occipital bone(os occipitale) consists of scales, two side parts And main part. These parts limit the large opening through which the cranial cavity communicates with the spinal canal. The main part of the occipital bone fuses with the sphenoid bone, forming a slope with its upper surface. On outer surface scales have an external occipital protuberance. On the sides of the foramen magnum are the condyles (articular surfaces that are connected by synastosis to the articular surface of the first vertebra). At the base of each condyle there is a canal for the hypoglossal nerve.


Occipital bone(outside). 1 - foramen magnum; 2 - scales; 3 - side part; 4 - condyle; 5 - canal of the hypoglossal nerve; 6 - body (main part); 7 - external occipital crest; 8 - external occipital protuberance

Wedge-shaped, or mainbone(os sphenoidale) consists of a body and three pairs of processes - large wings, small wings and pterygoid processes. On the upper surface of the body there is the so-called sella turcica, in the fossa of which the pituitary gland is located. At the base of the lesser wing there is an optic canal (optic opening).

Both wings (small and large) limit the superior orbital fissure. The large wing has three openings: round, oval and spinous. Inside the body of the sphenoid bone there is an air sinus, divided into two halves by a bony septum.


Wedge-shaped (main) And ethmoid bone. 1 - cockscomb of the ethmoid bone; 2 - perforated plate of the ethmoid bone; 3 - labyrinth of the ethmoid bone; 4 - hole leading into the sinus of the sphenoid bone; 5 - sinus of the sphenoid bone; 6 - small wing; 7 - large wing; 8 - round hole; 9 - oval hole; 10 - spinous foramen; 11 - perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone; 12 - sella turcica of the sphenoid bone; 13 - back of the sella turcica; 14 - tubercle of the sella turcica; 15 - superior orbital fissure; 16 - visual channel

Ethmoid bone(os ethmoidae) consists of a horizontal or perforated plate, a perpendicular plate, two orbital plates and two labyrinths. Each labyrinth consists of small air-bearing cavities - cells separated by thin bone plates. Two curved bony plates hang from the inner surface of each labyrinth - the superior and middle turbinates.

Frontal bone(os frontale) consists of scales, two orbital parts and a nasal part. The scales have paired projections - frontal tubercles and brow ridges. Each orbital part anteriorly passes into the supraorbital margin. The air sinus of the frontal bone (sinus frontalis) is divided into two halves by a bony septum.

Parietal bone(os parietale) has the shape of a quadrangular plate; on its outer surface there is a protrusion - the parietal tubercle.

Temporal bone(os temporale) consists of three parts: the scales, the stony part, or pyramid, and the drum part.

The temporal bone contains the hearing organ, as well as channels for auditory tube, internal carotid artery and facial nerve. On the outside of the temporal bone there is the external auditory canal. Anterior to it is the articular fossa for the articular process of the lower jaw. A zygomatic process extends from the scales, which connects to the process zygomatic bone and forms the zygomatic arch. The stony part (pyramid) has three surfaces: anterior, posterior and inferior. On its posterior surface there is the internal auditory canal, in which the facial and vestibulocochlear (stato-auditory) nerves pass. Facial nerve exits the temporal bone through the stylomastoid foramen. A long styloid process extends from the lower surface of the petrous part. Inside the rocky part is tympanic cavity(middle ear cavity) and inner ear. The stony part also has a mastoid process (processus mastoideus), inside of which there are small air-bearing cavities - cells. Inflammatory process in the cells of the mastoid process is called mastoiditis.


Temporal bone(right). A - outside view; B - view from the inside; 1 - scales; 2 - zygomatic process; 3 - front surface of the rocky part; 4 - articular fossa; 5 - sigmoid groove; 6 - top of the pyramid; 7 - in the top picture - the drum part; in the lower picture - the internal auditory opening; 8 - styloid process; 9 - external auditory opening; 10 - mastoid process; 11 - mastoid foramen

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